Kellert discusses the subject of symbolism. The following topics are discussed: how we use natural terms in speech (Kellert, 74), determining human identity by symbolizing nature in dreams and myths (Kellert, 76 and 79), how people relate to captive wildlife (Kellert, 98), the role of the domesticated animal especially looking at the emotional attention that some place on their animal (Kellert, 106), and how animals are portrayed in television.
Kellert begins by saying that natural imagery and symbolism is a part of human life. It is beneficial in human evolution and development by doing the following three things: language acquisition, psychological development, and everyday communication and thought.
Meanwhile the learning of language relies on the capacity to sort objects into categories or classification. Now why does this make a difference? If one has clear boundaries they are able to separate distinct objects. This is usually talked about in reference to a child. Paul Shepard had the following statement to say about the situation, "Hundreds of centuries of human experience have generated our drive to master the skills of category (Kellert, 76)
Kellert goes on to say that their identity can be seen to be derived from myths, fairytales, and fantasies. The three help people to encounter and resolve difficult aspects about a person's emotional development. The three can effect a person's identity because by helping people cope with authority versus independence, order versus chaos, good versus evil, and love versus sexuality. Other issues that are resolved through the use of nature's imagery through myths, fairytales, and fantasies are fundamental issues of human maturation, identity, and self-hood. (Kellert, 77) All of the above use the mind's visions to illustrate the use of natural symbols to find a psychological balance. So this helps a person find a better well being. Not only is nature symbolized through a person's dreams but it is also used in communication and thought. The world of advertisement is a prime example of this idea. Advertisement uses a variety of images of nature. The companies use these images as a way for the consumer to purchase the product that they are trying to sell. Examples of this can be seen at the Super Bowl commercials. Here the Super Bowl "reveals the extent of this reliance on symbolizing nature, especially animals." (Kellert, 80) Another example can be found at toy stores. Here cartoon characters, abstract logos with animals are placed all over. These images are combining the natural world with symbolic meaning.
For the end of the year project I wish to study the above idea on images in the media. There are many animals that are said to have connected phrases or added meaning to their image. I want to know if this is try, I want to find out what is the first image that comes to people's head when they hear or see a particular animal.
Kellert showed that humanism could be presented in a variety of ways, such as dreams, myths, television, and etc. In this section I want to talk about myths display a humanistic approach to nature.
This paper will look at the idea of myth in greater detail. But, what is a myth? Kirk describes a myth as the following; myth is a traditional tale with an important message: "narrative and entertaining, operative, iterative, and validity (including myths associated with rituals and religion, charter myths, and etiological myth), and speculative and expiatory (myths that reflect or explain fundamental paradoxes or institutions." (Caldwell, 5) This is only one opinion on what a myth is.
Myth has two styles of function to them. Two prominent ideas of this can be seen by multiple and psychological functions. Multiple functions mean "not only that different myths may have different functions but also that any individual myth …includes several functions."(Caldwell, I) On the other hand, psychological functioning of myths have three principles to fulfill: "to allow the expression of unconscious, usually repressed, ideas in a conventional and socially sanctioned form, to use the emotional function of myth, and provide a societal response to psychological needs, weather universal or culture-specific, shared by the individuals who make up society." (Caldwell, I)
The three psychological functions of myth lead into what is the purpose of myth. "The meaning of myth for Burkett is a function of its relation to ritual, and the meaning of ritual is to be found in its societal purpose. Rituals help individuals to deal with biological, emotional, and societal needs and problems, and thereby promote the stability and cohesiveness of a community." (Caldwell, 3-4) This statement is showing that the rituals that a part of many cultures give an anchor to the myths and other stories that have been passed down through the generations. The myths serve as a way to cope with the problems that plague the society.
All over the world nature has been seen to be apart of most cultures in some shape or form. One is able to find the stories told "combine the reverberant simplicity of dreams with the texture of close observation." (Eler and Wong, 1) Myth are as Leslie Marmon Silko said: they are all we have to live by." (Elder and Wong, 1) From this statement brings up a good point. Myths are more than just interpreting nature, nature is manipulated in such a way that they create stories that a lot of times are created in the hopes to teach people lessons concerning life. Leslie Marmon Silko agrees with this statement as she wrote the following from her essay, "Landscape, History, and the Pueblo Imagination": "What ever happened, the ancient people instinctively sorted events and details into a loose narrative structure. Everything became a story…the remembering and retelling were a communal process." (Elder and Wong, 4) "Such stories not only included the life of the whole people in a dynamic way, but also integrated features of the landscape or, to describe the relationship from the opposite direction, embedded the collective human experience in those physical objects." (Elder and Wong, 4)
There are four distinct types of myths that have been seen in many parts of the world. They are origins, animal tales and transformation, tricksters, and tales to live by. Origins discuss how the nature that we see around us was created. Animal tales and transformation contains a more humanistic approach to story telling.
Origins looks at the many interpretations created for how the planet Earth became our home. These stories are not looking at the planet as a way of resource supply instead these stories are looking at how rocks, trees, other culture and etc. are related to the grand cycles that are presented by the unexplainable sun, moon, and stars. The creation of the planet is just one type of creation myth. The myths that fall under the idea of origins deal with the origins of the earth and of humans, the origins of death, and the creation of plants, animals, celestial bodies, and seasons. One idea to note that the people that create new objects often times do this by accident. (Like for example the trickster or the coyote create through trail and error rather than because of a certain purpose.)
To show the diversity of the origin myths this paragraph will discuss the three fundamental types of creation myth that are known for many native North American cultures especially Navajo and Mohawk traditions. These types are the Emergence myth, the Earth-Diver myth, and the Made-from-Earth myth. Emergence myths from the Navajo tradition tell how people emerged from the First World through the Second, Third, and Fourth Worlds. To end the journey people finally ended up on the Fifth World. Here the First Man and the First Woman were created from two ears of corn. This is how human beings found residence on the Earth. The second section is that of the Earth-Diver myths. The Mohawk creation stories are told through pictograms and writing. And the third section is the Made-from-Earth myths. These myths talk of human beings created from the earth. For example the Spirit Beings form humankind from red clay. But the basic actions that usually happen within these stories are: "emerging from earth, di9ving into the water to locate and raise the earth, or being shaped from earth-all work to define humans as related to the earth." (Elder and Wong, 14) (Note: The idea of "all to define humans as related to the earth.' Is not an idea that is confined to the section of origins. This idea runs throughout this paper. Each of the four sections that are discussed in this paper show that humans are connected to nature in some way.)
The following origin myth is from Tahiti and is called "Tangaroa, Maker of All Things." (This was placed here so that the reader will get a better understanding of how a myth would read and how it places the animals in a powerful/ omnipotent position.)
For a long time Tangaroa lived within his shell. It was round like an egg and in the lasting darkness it revolved in the void.
There was no sun, there was no moon, there was no land nor mountain, all was moving in the void. There was no man, no fowl nor dog, no living thing; there was no water, salt or fresh.
At the end of a great time Tangaroa flicked his shell, and it cracked and fell apart. Then Tangaroa stepped forth and stood upon that shell and called:
"Who is above there? Who is below there?"
No voice replied. He called again:
"Who is in front there? Who is behind there?"
Still no voice answered. Only Tangaroa's voice was heard, there was no other.
Then Tangaroa said, O rock, crawl here!"
But no rock was, to crawl to him.
He therefore said, "O sand, crawl here!"
There was no sand to crawl to him. And Tangaroa became angry because he was not obeyed. He therefore overturned his shell and raised it up to forma dome for the sky, and he named it Rumia, that is, Overturned.
After a time great Tangaroa, wearied from confinement, stepped out from another shell that covered him; and he took this shell for rock and sand.
But his anger was not finished, and so he too his backbone for a mountain range and his ribs for the ridges that ascend. He took his innards for the broad floating clouds and his flesh for the fatness of the earth, and his arms and legs for strength of the earth. He took his fingernails and toenails for the scales of the shells of fishes in the sea.
Of his feathers he made trees and shrubs and plants to clothe the land. Of his guts he made lobsters, shrimps, and eels, for the streams and for the sea.
And the blood of Tangaroa became hot, and it floated away to make the redness of the sky, and also rainbows. All that is red is made from Tangaroa's blood.
But the head of Tangaroa remained sacred to himself, and he still lived, the same head upon a body that remained.
Tangaroa was master of everything that is. There was expansion and there was growth.
Tangaroa called forth gods. It was only after that he called forth man, when Tu was with him.
As Tangaroa had shells, so has everything a shell. The sky is a shell, which are endless space, where the gods placed the sun, the moon, the constellations, and other stars.
The land is a shell to the stones and to water, and to the plants that springs from it. The shell of a man is woman, since it is from her that he comes forth. And a woman's shell is woman, since it is from her that she comes forth.
No one can name the shells of all the things that are in this world. (Elder and Wong, 40-41)
This is only one example of a myth that deals with the idea of origins. The story of Tangaroa tells of how he created the things that humans see around them such as the rocks, and the planet, Earth. Every culture has created a group of narratives that help to explain the unexplainable. The creation of Earth is just one of the questions that people of the past did not understand. Tangaroa help the people of Tahiti understand the creation of earth.
Animal Tales and Transformations make up the second section that will be discussed. This section looks specifically at humanistic ideas. In these stories the animals that are discussed have features/qualities. These tales have a lot of underlying humor, drama, and sexiness that help to show the "personhood and importance of animal" for our society. (Elder and Wong, 5)
The trickster tales can be classified under animals and transformations, but this character is very prominent in many cultures. For example, "Ijapa and Anansi from Africa, Coyote and Br'er from North America, manifest powers far beyond human, and are sometimes even associated with the creations of the earth." (Elder and Wong, 5) The trickster is known for their daring creativity, but at that same time, they have the qualities that sometimes brings human beings down. These qualities are foolishness and pride.
The final section is tales to live by. These stories focus "on contemporary expressions of, and reflections about, the natural visions of indigenous cultures." (Elder and Wong, 6)
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