The Utilization/Exploitation of Tropical Plants for their Medicinal Value (Final)

Acropora palmata is an important indicator species of barrier reefs in the tropical Atlantic. Fire coral are also abundant in the Bahamas.

The chemical constituents which make up tropical plants are utilized by pharmaceutical companies in order to derive medications.These biosynthetic pathways include both primary and secondary compounds which are universal plant properties (Swanson, 1995). Primary compounds are those that aid a plant in photosynthesis such as carbohydrates and proteins. Secondary compounds include phenols, alkaloids, and terpenoids. Although these chemicals lack direct metabolic function they are instead utilized by the plant in defense measures (Kricher, 1997). Through isolating these active principles from plants, phytomedicines have been produced. These are medicines that contain only active components made explicitly from plants (Swanson, 1995).

Plants contain a plethora of secondary compounds. Three of which are phenols, alkaloids, and terpenoids. Phenols are defensive compounds within plants which make digestion more difficult for predators . Alkaloids include such drugs as cocaine, morphine, and caffeine. These chemicals have a characteristic bitter taste, and when ingested target the function of the liver and cell membranes. These properties among others are generally successful in deterring predators. Terpenoids are fat-soluble compounds, some of which are toxic to leafcutter ants and the fungi that they culture (Kricher, 1997). There are many other secondary compounds which are successful in discouraging predators. However, many of these compounds have been isolated and exploited in order to confer their medicinal attributes.

There are many examples of medicinal agents which have been extracted from plants in order to elicit their therapeutic properties. Leaves of the coca shrub (Erythoxylum coca) have been used in order to yield cocaine, which indigenous people use as a modern local anesthetic (Chivian, 2001). Cocaine is not only used by indigenous people as a source of medicine, but it has been incorporated into their rituals, as well as in their daily lifestyles through chewing and as a source of nutrition (Kricher, 1997). Quinine and quinidine have been derived from the bark of the Cinchona species, which is a drug that has been implemented in the treatment of the tropical disease malaria. Resistance to active agents derived from plants occurs more slowly than resistance to synthetic drugs. This was discovered due to active agents being utilized from Chinese wormwood (Artemisia annua) which also aids in the treatment of malaria. Resistance to this drug occurs more slowly than with synthetic antimalarial drugs (Chivian, 2001). This is an important quality due to the need to have time to develop stronger more effective treatments, without resistance setting in. When resistance occurs the strain of vaccine is no longer effective against that specific disease which would inevitably cause many fatalities. From the bark of the Pacific yew tree (Taxus brevifolia), taxol has been elicited which has aided in the treatment of malignant tumors. The medicinal agent d-tubocurarine was obtained from the Chondodendron vine, and vinblastine and vincristine was derived from the rosy periwinkle plant (Chivian, 2001).

Medicinal plants have readily been used as direct sources of therapeutic agents (Akerele, 1993). They have also been manipulated by animals as a means of eliciting defensive properties. This is due to the secondary components that make up these plants. One such component that characterizes medicinal plants are toxins, which are digestibility-reducers. Toxins occur in trace amounts within medicinal plants (Simpson et al., 2008). An example of a toxin is the compound tannin, which is a substance that is able to bind to plant proteins, which prevents predators from digesting the plantÕs nutrients (Cowen, 1990). Some herbivores have been able to manipulate these toxins and use them as defenses against their own predators. This is portrayed through monarch butterflies ingesting and storing the glycosides of milkweeds which provides them defense against birds (Simpson et al., 2008). A study conducted by John Berry at Cornell University found that eating fruits of wild ginger temporarily disrupted the digestive system of gorillas. This was due to antibacterial compounds in the plant which hindered the gorillaÕs normal microbiota. His study indicated that over a period of prolonged exposure to the plant, the microorganisms found in the gorillasÕ gut adapted and developed resistance to the plants active compounds (Biser, 1998).

Medicinal plants also confer many beneficial properties to animals, such as helping to rid the body of parasites, and/or bacteria. This is portrayed through a study conducted by Rodriguez, which found when chimpanzees swallow whole leaves of Aspilia mossambicensis, this kills bacteria, fungi, parasitic worms and certain cancer cells. This is due to thiarubine-A, an agent found within the leaves of this plant (Cowen, 1990). Another example of animals exploiting the medicinal value of plants is seen through a study conducted by Huffman, which found that chimps ingest the bitter, toxic pith of Vernonia amygdalina when they are ill rather than for nutritional value. Through this behavior of ingesting V. amygdalina, which contains the compound vernonioside B1, the chimps are able to utilize the antiparasitic, antitumor, and antibacterial properties that this plant elicits (Huffman, 2003). Medicinal plants may also be linked to dictating gender. This was depicted through a study by Glander, which found that female howler monkeys eat a specific plant before and after copulation, which is linked to giving birth to solely male offspring. The study suggested that fertile females seek compounds that change the pH of the vagina, which in turn shifts gender. Elephants as well as primates are also thought to utilize plants as a means of inducing labor (Cowen, 1990).

The market for medicinal plants has increased due to the medicinal properties conferred from these plants. These secondary biochemicals of plants are sought after by both humans and animals alike. Humans utilize medicinal plants in order to obtain therapeutic results, which is similar to animals which also self medicate.

In the scope of this discussion, ethnobotany is defined as the study of how indigenous people obtained medicinal value through tropical plants (Kricher, 1997). This source of obtaining medicine through plants and relying on traditional knowledge, rather than deriving synthetic drugs, is a source of alternative medicine. Indigenous people primarily gained their medicinal knowledge through trial and error. They were able to learn from animals which also self medicated. Anotherapproach in which indigenous people use to determine whether or not medicinal attributes are associated with a plant is through the physical characteristics of a plant species. This method of identifying plants as medicinal according to the shape, color and other aspects which depicted the disease or body part which a plant would be effective at treating is termed, ÒThe Doctrine of SignaturesÓ (Swanson, 1995). Although this is one method of determining the healing properties of a plant, an alternative method in which traditional healers obtained their medicinal knowledge was attributed to their spiritual senses. This ethnobotanical knowledge was enculturated within their tribe, which depicts the knowledge as being passed from generation to generation (Kricher, 1997).

Traditional healers, shamans, utilize herbs as a way of promoting health and healing rather than viewing them as drugs. Most diseases are viewed by those in the village as curses or due to evil spirits (Kricher, 1997). The indigenous health system ranges from a traditional system to one that is influenced by western medicine. However, through the use of indigenous medicine this has reduced their reliance on western medicine imports (Akerele, 1993). Much of this ancient ethnobotanical knowledge in regard to local medicinal plants and their ecosystems have been lost within villages that have been ÒmodernizedÓ. This is due to many indigenous groups migrating to the cities in the quest of finding a job. Also, extinctions of whole groups of indigenous tribes have occurred as a result of environmental destruction. In an attempt to preserve the knowledge of traditional medicine before itÕs all lost, the Shamans and Apprentices program was developed. Through this program apprentices are trained by shamans on the local medicinal plants. They are also encouraged to document the herbal remedies and the results of their practices at their villageÕs clinic (Montenegro et al., 2006).

Some examples of traditional uses of tropical plants for their secondary metabolites include the use of curare, intoxicants and hallucinogens. Through the use of a Wourali vine, indigenous people are able to make poison arrow darts, which they utilize when hunting. This poison relaxes the muscles of the victim and causes paralysis. The hallucinogen in the genus Virola, family Myristicaceae is used by the natives as a means of spiritual, ritualistic, and medicinal purposes (Kricher, 1997).

The health of an individual within an indigenous village is ultimately linked to the health of an ecosystem (Montenegro et al., 2006). This complex physical, as well as, spiritual connection that indigenous people share with their environment enables them to live in harmony with their environment and maintain a balance. However, when deforestation or other modes of disturbance occurs, they are no longer able to ascertain a balance within their ecosystem, and ecocide results. The consequences of ecocide include the loss of resources available to the indigenous tribes, diseases of development, as well as fragmented, disturbed environments. Alsothe ecological roles of medicinal plants which are pivotal in regulating the concentration of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water vapor in the atmosphere, as well as filtering pollutants is disturbed which largely impacts the health of an ecosystem. The impacts of deforestation on the roles of tropical plants could result in increased temperature and lowered precipitation rates (Chivian, 2001).

As mentioned, external influences are the primary means in which the biodiversity of medicinal plants is affected. These relationships primarily arise due to factors affecting their habitat ranges. Factors such as global warming, pollution, introduction of invasive species and overharvesting of species threaten biodiversity. However, it is the exploitation of habitats through reduction and fragmentation that pose the greatest threat (Chivian, 2001). Due to the influence of humans on the environment, such as deforestation, and other means of abusing our natural resources, there is no longer a defined balance in our ecosystem (AndrŽn, 1994). Deforestation impacts the abundance of medicinal plants in our forests, as well as other plants, which account for the bulk of indigenous tribes medicinal and food resources. This creates a chain reaction which not only impacts the amount of medicinal plants we are depleting, but also an unnatural means by which indigenous tribes must obtain their food, medicines, and other means of survival. In areas with highly fragmented habitats, isolation will occur due to the effect of habitat loss. This may result in decreased population size, as well as in the loss of both animal and plant species (AndrŽn, 1994). Thus, fragmentation not only depletes tropical plants, but also our medicinal resources.

It is important to note that indirect influences such as habitat fragmentation ultimately cause a reduction in the genetic variability that remains available to the species. This ultimately affects the pattern of natural selection due to an increase of genetic drift occurring in small populations (Stirling &Derocher, 1990). This statement implies that although some populations may survive habitat fragmentation, their gene pools have been reduced; this results in selection against these individuals which may cause mutations which could eliminate the species. Another important concept is the way in which ecosystems help control the spread of diseases through establishing and maintaining equilibrium among predators and prey. Upsetting this equilibrium may result in the spread of disease, such as malaria and leishmaniasis through deforestation (Chivian, 2001). Further, if medicinal plants were also exploited, then this would eliminate a major means in which we obtain medicines. Thus, not only are we upsetting the natural equilibrium held in check by these species, but we are also decreasing our medicinal resources.

In the Amazon, between the years of 1975-1988, 500,000 km2 of rainforest was deforested (Mignone et al., 2001). This deforestation has resulted in the loss of plants, and animals which may have potential medicinal value. Many of these species of organisms have yet to be discovered and unfortunately may be extinct before they are. An example of a medicinal plant that was readily discarded before it was found to have medicinal properties was the Pacific yew. This tree was often thrown away during the logging of old forests in the Pacific Northwest. It was then found to contain taxol, which is a chemical that is able to kill cancer cells, and induce remission of advanced ovarian cancer (Chivian, 2001). Many other medicinal plants may also be on the brink of extinction due to habitat deforestation and fragmentation. This results in not only lost medicinal resources but also a loss of essential biodiversity.

Other threats to medicinal plant research is associated with pharmaceutical firms in industrialized nations. Many of these firms donÕt want to utilize plants as agents for extracting medicines. There are also issues in dispensing herbal medicines, ensuring their safety through chemical analyses, and also assigning a dosage. However, the race to develop new medicines from medicinal plants with little to no side effects generally overrides these other issues (Akerele, 1993).

The market for medicinal plants has increased due to the medicinal properties conferred from these plants. There is a minimum of 175 North American plants that serve as non-prescription medicines throughout the United States (Green Medicine, 2007). In the United States, 57% of the 150 most commonly prescribed medicines contained components which were extracted from plants (Chivian, 2001). Medicinal plants are thought to account for 80% of the worldÕs primary health care. The University of Illinois asserted that 9,200 of 33,000 monocotyledons, dicotyledons, gymnosperms, lichens, pteridophytes, and bryophytes were being utilized for their ethnomedicinal properties (Akerele, 1993). The utilization of medicinal plants through pharmaceutical companies demonstrates the need for both conservation and preservation of our resources so that we may continue to elicit the medicinal properties that these plants confer.

Conservation is essential in order to ensure the survival of medicinal plants. These species are vulnerable to deforestation, overharvesting, and other means of exploitation. The management of medicinal plants is also essential in order to sustain these species as natural resources. Such conservation efforts have been initiated in natural ecosystems and on private lands. In some countries, the Department of Forestry have increased their involvement in protecting these species through developing conservatories specifically for medicinal plants, as well as managing forest lands (Department of Forestry, 2002). Twenty-five percent of Costa RicaÕs forests have been protected, in the attempt of preserving its plants for future pharmaceutical research. Also, the WHO, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, and the World Wide Fund for Nature have also contributed to the conservation of medicinal plants through their role of developing stringent guidelines for their protection. These guidelines seek to prevent forest and species from disappearing, as well as establishing botanical gardens (Akerele, 1993). Through conservation efforts, the survival of medicinal plants will be ensured. Thus, allowing these species to maintain their ecological roles in nature. This will also allow for an intercultural health system to be promoted, in which indigenous medicine is integrated and practiced with western medicine.

Medicinal plants are an integral part of Costa Rican biodiversity. These plants ascertain fundamental roles in maintaining equilibrium within their ecosystem. They elicit secondary metabolites which are not only beneficial to their own well being by providing themselves defensive properties, but also confer medicinal properties to both humans and animals alike. Medicinal plants are fundamental in bridging the health care systems of traditional and western medicine. They also play a role in shaping the culture of indigenous people, and are essential sources of alternative medicine. As long as humans conserve these plants there will be a balance between humans and our tropical ecosystems.

Resources

AndrŽn, H. (1994). Effects of Habitat Fragmentation on Birds and Mammals in Landscapes with Different Proportions of Suitable Habitat: A Review. Oikos,7(3), 355-366.

Akerele, O. (1993). NatureÕs medicinal bounty: donÕt throw it away. World Health Forum, 14(4), 390- 395

Biser, J.A. (1998). Really Wild Remedies-Medicinal Plant Use by Animals. ZooGoer, 27(1).

Chivian, E. (2001). Environment and health: 7. Species loss and ecosystem disruptionÑthe implications for human health. CMAJ, 164(1), 66-69.

Cowen, R. (1990). Medicine on the Wild Side. Science News, 138(18), 280-282.

Department of Forestry. (2002). Impact of Cultivation and Gathering of Medicinal Plants on Biodiversity: Case Studies From India. Retrieved April 11, 2008, from http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/AA021E/AA021e10.htm

Green Medicine. (2007). Medicinal Plants. Retrieved March 28, 2008, from
http://www.nps.gov/plants/medicinal/plants.htm

Huffman, M.A. (2003). Animal self-medication and ethno-medicine: exploration and exploitation of the medicinal properties of plants. ProcNutrSoc, 62(2), 371-81.

Kricher, J. (1997). A Neotropical Companion. Princeton University Press.

Mignone, J., Bartlett, J., OÕNeil, J., & Orchard, T. (2007). Best practices in intercultural health: five case studies in Latin America. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 3(31).

Montenegro, R., Stephens, C. (2006). Indigenous health in Latin America and the Caribbean. The Lancet, 367(9525), 1859-1869.

Simpson, Ogorzaly, Levetin, & McMahon. Medicinal Plants. Retrieved March 28, 2008, from
www.clas.ufl.edu/users/mattjp/Lecture%20Notes/Medicinal%20Plants.doc Ð

Stirling, I., Derocher, A.E. (1990). Factors Affecting the Evolution and Behavioral Ecology of the Modern Bears. Bears: Their Biology and Management, 8, 189-204.

Swanson, T.M. (1995). Intellectual Property Rights and Biodiversity Conservation: An interdisciplinary analysis of the values of medicinal plants. Cambridge University Press

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