Marine Protected Areas of the Bahamas

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Factors I will consider in my investigation include: time the MPA was established, reason for establishment, key species being protected, level of protection and relative success as well as the success of key species within and outside of "protected areas." I would also like to compare the management plan of these protected marine areas to comparable MPAs in other island systems.

Introduction:
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), just like terrestrial parks and protected lands, are created in order to protect a specific species, preserve a unique habitat or conserve an environment of scientific, economic or social interest and use (Agady, 2000). Marine Protected Areas will vary in size, shape and distribution as a function of their purpose. Historically, MPAs were established somewhat haphazardly according to the ease with which they could be placed next to anthropogenic structures (military installations, oil rigs), dramatic landscapes, or areas of scientific or social interest. Most reserve locations and boundaries, regardless of purpose, have been established through political processes focusing on economics, logistics and/or public opinion without consideration of the areaÕs complex ecological and biological systems (Halpern and Warner, 2003). Palumbi et al (2002), state that ÒMPAs are defined as Ôareas of the ocean designated to enhance conservation of marine resources.Õ The actual level of protection within MPAs varies considerably; most allow some extractive activities such as fishing, while prohibiting others such as drilling for oil or gas.Ó
More recently, all marine reserves are being re-evaluated and re-established with marine resource management and conservation in mind. In response to the collapse of many large-scale fisheries and a growing demand for eco-tourism, marine protected areas are now established with the preservation of the ecosystemÕs biodiversity in mind. New MPAs that are established using an ecosystem-based model should consider nurseries, species-dispersal, competition between species, and other geographic limitations based on the extent of movement of organisms and physically linked processes (Agardy, 2000). A concern of many scientists and marine park designers is whether these more comprehensive marine protected areas can satisfy the demands and expectations of a wide variety of stakeholders and users. The Islands of the Bahamas serves as an interesting place to examine and evaluate the purpose and success of marine protected areas. This is a location whose economy is significantly dependent on fisheries and tourism: two sectors which are traditionally at-odds with one another. Using the Bahamas as an example we can examine whether collaborative management of marine reserves has the potential to meet a diversity of stakeholder needs and expectations.
The Bahamas is a 100,000 square mile archipelago that extends over 500 miles. There are about 700 islands, including uninhabited cays and large rocks, with a land area of about 5,382 square miles. The islands are made of calcium carbonate, which is mainly produced and precipitated by the inhabitants of the coral reefs. The Bahamas has the worldÕs third longest barrier reef, Andros Barrier Reef, and about 14.5% of the worldÕs coral (www.bahamas.com).
In 2002, the former Prime Minister, Hubert Ingraham, confirmed the creation of 10 new protected areas, an action which would double the size of the countryÕs national park system and serve as an unprecedented event in world conservation history. Mr. Ingraham was quoted in the Currents newsletter as saying that the new parks Òare diverse in their features and valuesÉand they expand the degree of ecological representation within our national park system. Great expanses of wetlands, barrier reefs, forested areas, critical breeding and nesting sites, sites important to science and recreation, are now designated as national park areas and will be protected in perpetuity.Ó (Currents, 2002). There are currently 25 National Parks throughout the Bahamas (Figure 1), eight of which are marine and managed by the Bahamas National Trust (BNT). These are:

1) Exuma Cays Land & Sea Park
2) Moriah Harbour Cay, Exuma
3) Pelican Cays Land & Sea Park, Abacos
4) Black Sound, Abaco
5) WalkerÕs Cay, Abaco
6) Union Creek , Inagua
7) Westside of Andros National Park
8) Andros Barrier Reef National Park

The Department of Marine Resources has further proposed the creation of five marine reserves spread throughout the Bahamas. The five initial sites are:

1) North Bimini
2) Berry Islands
3) South Eleuthera
4) Exuma (2 sites)
5) Abaco

Figure 1: Map of the Bahamas Islands and 25 National Parks (Bullard and Anderson, 2008)
The marine parks of the Bahamas are regulated by the Bahamas National Trust. They vary in level of regulation, zoning/classification, size, and habitat and/or species being protected:

1) Exuma Cays Land & Sea Park: was established in 1958 and is regulated by the Bahamas National Trust Act. It is managed by national, public and non-governmental entities. It was later designated as a no-take reserve in 1986, becoming one of the oldest marine reserves in existence (NOAA, 2005). The site is comprised of 455.6 square kilometers of which 364.5 square kilometers are a marine no-take zone. The site contains marine, intertidal, subtidal zones and is designated as an IUCN Category II (a national park) (Wood, 2007). By designating the entire marine area as a no-take zone with fishing prohibited, the Bahamas government intends to preserve the marine fishery reserve of the Caribbean region. Animals protected within the reserve include the Hutia, Geocapromys ingrahami, which is the only native terrestrial mammal of the Bahamas; sea birds which nest and breed within the reserve; and Stromalite reefs, which are some of the oldest and rarest living creatures found on earth (BNT, 2008).

2) Moriah Harbour Cay, Exuma: was established in 2002 and is legally designated and regulated by the 1959 Bahamas National Trust Act. It is composed of marine, intertidal and subtidal components and has no zoning regulation. The site has a total area of 54.39 square kilometers and is dominated by mangroves, seagrasses, beach and sand dunes (Wood, 2007). These habitats serve as shelter and home for a variety of sea birds as well as immature marine invertebrates and fish. The bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncates) is a species of interest and under protection in this area (UNEP-WCMC).

3) Pelican Cays Land & Sea Park, Abacos: was established in 1972 and is legally designated under the 1959 Bahamas National Trust Act. It is regulated by the Bahamas National Trust as well as public and non-governmental organizations. The site has a total area of 8.5 square kilometers with 6.8 square kilometers being characterized as a marine environment. There are marine, intertidal and subtidal components and the site is designated as an IUCN Category II (national park) (Wood, 2007). Within the Pelican Cays Land & Sea Park there are warm water coral reefs and undersea caves where spiny Caribbean lobsters, Panulirus argus, and grouper find shelter (BNT, 2008).

4) Black Sound, Abaco: comprising only 0.08 square kilometers of marine, intertidal and subtidal environment, this area was set aside as a park in 1988 and is regulated by the 1959 Bahamas National Trust Act. It is managed by the Bahamas National Trust as well as public and non-governmental organizations (Wood, 2007). It is a protected mangrove habitat nestled in the harbor of AbacoÕs historic Green Turtle Cay (BNT, 2008).

5) WalkerÕs Cay, Abaco: designated a marine park in 2002 and regulated by the 1959 Bahamas National Trust Act, this site comprises 15.54 square kilometers of marine, intertidal and subtidal environments. Characterized as a warm water coral reef habitat, it is monitored and controlled by the Bahamas National Trust with help from non-governmental organizations (NGOs). This, like others, is an unregulated site and therefore is home to many sports fishing and diving tourism operations. This Cay is popular for shark feeding excursions.

6) Union Creek, Inagua: a managed nature reserve since 1965 under the 1959 Bahamas National Trust Act. This site comprises 18.13 square kilometers of marine, intertidal and subtidal environments. This enclosed tidal area is categorized as an IUCN Ia (strict nature reserve) site (Wood, 2007). The Union Creek National Reserve is an important research site for the Green Turtles, Chelonia mydas, whose young take shelter here. Studies on sea turtles have been taking place here since 1974 through the joint project of the Bahamas National Trust and the University of FloridaÕs Archie Carr Center for Sea Turtle Research.

7) Westside of Andros National Park: this site was established in 2002 and is also regulated and managed by the Bahamas National Trust under the Bahamas National Trust Act of 1959. It has an area of 1,158 square kilometers and contains marine, intertidal and subtidal components. It contains wetlands, mangroves as well as warm water coral reefs and blue holes (Wood, 2007; BNT, 2008). The West Side National Park serves as an important habitat for conch and bonefish. It is also a feeding area for the West Indian Flamingos. Some of the blue holes contain rare species of fish and shrimp. While initial management and protection efforts were focused on the central area of the park, they are expanding north- and westward (BNT, 2008). Figure 2 shows areas that will be encompassed in the proposed expansion:

Figure 2: Map of Andros Cay, current and proposed protected areas (Bullard and Anderson, 2008).

8) Andros Barrier Reef National Park: This Park, contained within the designated Central Andros National Park, protects two areas of the Andros Barrier Reef which is the third longest barrier reef in the world (BNT, 2008). It is an extremely diverse and rich marine ecosystem.

Marine Reserves:
Figure 3 shows the 5 initially proposed sites for marine reserves (Bullard and Anderson, 2008).
Figure 3: Proposed sites for marine reserves (note: Exuma has 2 sites) (Bullard and Anderson, 2008).

1) North Bimini (Figure 4): this area is a proposed site for the marine reserve due to major threats by development and foreign fishing. It has an area of 30.69 square kilometers and contains mangrove forests, seagrass beds, bonefish flats, warm water coral reef and lagoons as well as a historical site, a healing hole (Bullard and Anderson, 2008). The eastern half of the Bimini Sound may be an important nursery ground in the region for animals such as lemon sharks and commercially important species.

Figure 4: North Bimini proposed marine reserve (Bullard and Anderson, 2008).

2) Berry Islands (Figure 5): these islands are located east of Bimini and about 30 miles from New Providence. They are located on the edge of the Tongue of the Ocean and most of the cays are privately owned. The islands are threatened by development with about 500 people living on the 30 small islands. The proposed marine reserve would have an area of about 136.31 square kilometers and would include the extensive coral reef and dense seagrass habitats as well as known conch nursery grounds. Fishing and Lionfish are marine threats that endanger this area.

Figure 5: Berry Islands proposed marine reserve (Bullard and Anderson, 2008).
3) South Eleuthera (Figure 6): this proposed marine reserve encompasses an area of 50.30 square kilometers and contains some seagrass beds, a narrow reef tract and a shelf edge. While most of the area has a sandy bottom, there are some well-developed patch reefs and blue holes. This area is a known breeding ground for juvenile conch and spiny lobster. The coast is lined by mangroves. Major threats to this island, characterized by its pink-white sand beaches, magnificent bluffs and calm harbors include a depressed economy, a lack of enforcement and encroachment by the Lionfish.

Figure 6: Eleuthera proposed marine reserve (Bullard and Anderson, 2008).

4) Exuma (2 sites), (Figure 7): there are two proposed sites for conservation on Exuma which is comprised of about 360 Cays and stretches for about 130 miles. The first site extends from the mainland of Great Exuma to Jewfish Cay and will include extensive mangroves and creeks that are surrounded by bonefish flats. This area is also a known juvenile spiny lobster breeding ground. The total area for the first proposed marine reserve is 145.52 square kilometers. This area currently lacks sufficient enforcement.
The second site, with a total area of 101.83 square kilometers, is located between Little Exuma and Long Island and includes the only spawning aggregation site of Nassau grouper. This second site also contains patch reefs and extensive warm water coral reefs. This area is threatened by commercial fishing from Long Island as well as coral bleaching and predation by Lionfish.

Figure 7: Exuma proposed marine reserve (Bullard and Anderson, 2008).

5) Abaco (Figure 8): the proposed marine reserve of Abaco Cay would include the Abaco Barrier Reef within its area of about 95.16 square kilometers. Habitats that would be protected include mangroves, seagrass beds and warm water coral reefs. This site is currently threatened by Casuarinas and 2 species of Lionfish.

Figure 8: Abaco proposed marine reserve (Bullard and Anderson, 2008).
Status of MPAs
The criteria for selecting the five initial marine reserve sites depended on representation, replication, size and distribution. The network of sites must have representation from all the different habitats found in the Bahamas. Any duplicate reserves must be scattered at an appropriate distance to ensure survival of species and habitats in the event of localized or man-made disasters. Each reserve would have to be big enough to allow most organismsÕ movement to take place within the boundaries. The reserves would have to be sited in such a way that they could serve as a network, with each reserve reinforcing and being reinforced by the others (Department of Marine Resources). In addition, the Bahamas has committed to protected at least 20% of its near-shore marine resources by 2020, established under the United Nations on Biological Diversity. The five sites selected will serve as the first of the Network of Marine Reserves. Currently, the focus of the Department of Marine Resources is to develop a Capacity Plan, a Sustainable Finance Plan, and a Master Plan for the national protected system. Field work is being conducted at all 5 sites to determine the health of the reefs and mangroves as well as which marine resource types and their relative abundance would be contained within the proposed marine reserve network.

Classification of MPAs:
Of the eight established marine parks within the Bahamas Islands only the Exuma Cays Land & Sea Park is a classified no-take zone. Exuma Cays and the Pelican Cays Land & Sea Parks are IUCN Category II sites or National Parks. This categorization means that they are protected areas mainly used for ecosystem preservation and recreation and that exploitation and occupation of the resources should not occur within these sites. Union Creek is an IUCN Category Ia site which is termed a strict nature reserve or wilderness protection area. It is managed mainly for science or wilderness protection through research and monitoring (Cardiff University and IUCN, 2002).
Of the five new proposed marine reserves all except Bimini have been recommended as no-take marine reserves. Bimini would be zoned for catch-and-release due to its long history as an area for bonefishing and the dependence of many local guides on this industry. The Minister of Agriculture & Marine Resources only has the authority to implement no-fishing in these areas, the Department of Marine Resources, in recognition of the need to have areas of Òno disturbanceÓ in order to make the marine reserves functional and sustainable are lobbying to make all areas no-extraction and no-disturbance. This would protect these fragile habitats from the Bimini Bay Development as well as development on other islands which currently pose a major threat to the proposed areas.

Management of MPAs
As has occurred for nearly forty years, the established and proposed marine parks and reserves would be monitored by government agencies such as the Bahamas National Trust, Fisheries Officers and the Royal Bahamas Defense and Police Forces. These officers would be responsible for enforcing the marine reserve guidelines and regulations as set out in the appropriate management plans.
According to the World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) Guidelines for Marine Protected Areas (Kelleher, 1999), the marine protected areas of Bahamas should be created with recognition of the wider context and the separation between land and sea; be developed under an appropriate legal framework; involve work between and collaboration of any relevant sectors; encourage partnerships with communities and other stakeholders; and be carefully selected to take into account both inputs and outputs of the proposed protected area; have management that is responsive and adaptive so that it can build support for the conservation objectives; be zoned for various uses; be financially sustainable; and have continuous research, monitoring, evaluation and reviews conducted within the protected areas.
Thus far, research suggests that the Bahamas Islands are adequately following the WCPA guidelines. All of the marine parks and reserves have boundaries which include both land and marine habitats, acknowledging the connection between the seemingly distinct ecosystems. Most of the marine parks are designated as National Parks and all parks are managed and administered by the Bahamas National Trust under the Bahamas National Trust Act of 1959. What the Bahamas may be lacking is a stronger coordination between the different entities that utilize the protected areas. There is very little evidence of discussions taking place between the government and the fishing, tourism, and scientific sectors. Without a collaborative management, the parks and reserves will be at risk for improper use and a lack of effective regulation and monitoring. While the designation of no-take zones is an important step to take towards protecting and preserving threatened habitats and ecosystems, doing so against the will of the local people will most likely lead to illicit activities and a more significant decline of the targeted resource than was originally observed. As outlined in the paper by Agardy (2000) the success of any protected area will be closely linked to how well the different user groups and stakeholders are identified and included in the planning and management process. Marine protected areas must allow for some common property ownership in order to give local communities a sense of place and therefore a sense of purpose in protecting the resource for their own and their future generationsÕ needs. By zoning the marine parks and reserves for specific uses and in places where it is possible, for mixed uses, the government will probably see a higher level of success in maintaining and improving the quality and health of the protected habitats and their resident species populations
The Bahamas are already taking steps in the right direction, expansion of the current parks, the creation of new reserves and the zoning of ecologically sensitive areas will help the Bahamas retain its unique and revered habitats and species as well as ensure the sustainability of its varied marine resources. Collaborative management and engaged discussions between the public and private sectors will most likely guarantee the improved quality and health of terrestrial and marine areas, regardless of their designation or level of protection.

Works Cited

____________. 2008. Bahamas National Trust: National Parks of the Bahamas. http://www.bnt.bs/parks.php

____________. June 2002. Currents: newsletter of the Bahamas National Trust. Volume 8 (1). http://www.bsc-eoc.org/download/BNT-newsletter_June02.pdf

____________. April 28, 2005. Marine Reserve Research to Protect Fisheries in the Caribbean. http://www.nurp.noaa.gov/Spotlight/MarineReserve.htm

_____________. UNEP-WCMC Species Database: Tursiops truncatus. http://sea.unep-wcmc.org/isdb/species.cfm?genus=Tursiops&species=truncatus&source=Animals&tabname=names

Cardiff University and IUCN. July 2002. IUCN Protected Area Management Categories. http://www.iucn.org/themes/wcpa/wpc2003/pdfs/outputs/pascat/pascatrev_info3.pdf

Wood, L. J. (2007). MPA Global: A database of the world's marine protected areas. Sea Around
Us Project, UNEP-WCMC & WWF. www.mpaglobal.org
Agardy, Tundi. INFORMATION NEEDS FOR MARINE PROTECTED AREAS: SCIENTIFIC AND SOCIETAL." BULLETIN OF MARINE SCIENCE 66, no. 3 (2000): 875-888, http://unicorn.csc.noaa.gov/mpa/agardy.pdf (accessed June 5, 2008).
Bullard, Janeen and LaKeshia Anderson. ÒMarine Protected Areas in the BahamasÓ. Ochos Rios, Jamaica: IABIN MARINE PROTECTED AREAS WORKSHOP, 2008 (accessed June 8, 2008).
Halpern, Benjamin S. and Robert Warner. ÒMatching Marine Reserve Design to Reserve Objectives.Ó The Royal Society, Review Paper. (2003): 1871-1878.
Kelleher, Graeme (editor). ÒGuidelines for Marine Protected Areas.Ó World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) Best Practice Protected Area Guidelines, Series No. 3. 1999. http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/pag_003.pdf
Palumbi, S.R. 2002. Marine Reserves: An Ecosystem Tool for Marine Management and
Conservation. Pew Oceans Commission. Arlington, VA.

References

Agardy, Tundi, Peter Bridgewater, Michael P. Crosby, Jon Day, Paul K. Dayton, Richard
Gerber, L.R., L.W. Botsford, A. Hastings, H.P. Possingham, S.D. Gaines, S.R. Palumbi, and
S.J. Andelman. ÒPopulation models for marine reserve design: A retrospective and
prospective synthesis.Ó Ecological Applications 13 (2003): 47-64.

Agardy, Tundi, Peter Bridgewater, Michael P. Crosby, Jon Day, Paul K. Dayton, Richard Kenchington, Dan Laffoley, et al. "Dangerous Targets? Unresolved Issues and Ideological Clashes Around Marine Protected Areas." Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 13, no. 4 (2003): 353-367.
Baskett, Marissa L., Fiorenza Micheli, and Simon A. Levin. "Designing Marine Reserves for Interacting Species: Insights from Theory." Biological Conservation 137, no. 2 (2007): 163-179.
Hyrenbach, K. David, Karin A. Forney, and Paul K. Dayton. "Marine Protected Areas and Ocean Basin Management." Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 10, no. 6 (2000): 437-458.
Kenchington, Dan Laffoley, et al. "Dangerous Targets? Unresolved Issues and Ideological Clashes Around Marine Protected Areas." Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 13, no. 4 (2003): 353-367.

Palumbi, S.R. 2004. Marine reserves and ocean neighborhoods: The spatial scale of marine populations and their management. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 29: 31-68.

Petrosillo, I., G. Zurlini, M. E. Corlian˜, N. Zaccarelli, and M. Dadamo. "Tourist Perception of Recreational Environment and Management in a Marine Protected Area." Landscape and Urban Planning 79, no. 1 (2007): 29-37.
Sala, Enric, Octavio Aburto-Oropeza, Gustavo Paredes, Ivan Parra, Juan C. Barrera, and Paul K. Dayton. "A General Model for Designing Networks of Marine Reserves." Science 298, no. 5600 (6 December, 2002): 1991-1993, http://www.sciencemag.org.proxy.lib.muohio.edu/cgi/reprint/sci;298/5600/1991.pdf (accessed June 5, 2008).

Additional Suggested Readings
Airamé, S., J. E. Dugan, K. D. Lafferty, H. M. Leslie, D. A. McArdle, and R. R. Warner. 2003. Applying ecological criteria to marine reserve design: a case study from the California Channel Islands. Ecological Applications 13:S170-184.
Allison, G., Lubchenco, J. and Carr, M.H. 1998. Marine reserves are necessary but not sufficient for marine conservation. Ecological Applications 8(1) Supplement:S79-592.

Botsford, L. W., A. Hastings, and S. D. Gaines. 2001. Dependence of sustainability on the configuration of marine reserves and larval dispersal distance. Ecology Letters 4:144-150.

Carr, M. H., and P. T. Raimondi. 1999. Marine protected areas as a precautionary approach to management.California Cooperative Oceans Fisheries Investigations Reports 40:1-6.

Carr, M. H. 2000. Marine protected areas: challenges and opportunities for understanding and conserving coastal marine ecosystems. Environmental Conservation 27:106-109.

Gaylord, B., S.D. Gaines, D.A. Siegel, and M. H. Carr. 2005. Marine reserves can exploit life history and population structure to potentially increase fisheries yields. Ecological Applications 15:2180 2191

Halpern, B.S. and R.R. Warner. 2003. Matching marine reserve function to stakeholder needs. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B: Biological Sciences 270: 1871-1878

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TEACHING TOOLS & OTHER STUFF Visit some terrific DISCOVERY LABS.....! The Frisbee Lab The Moon Lab Geologic Time The Sun Lab The Taxonomy Lab Kepler's Laws and Jupiter's Moons Course DISCUSSION SITES--Add a comment......! Global Climate Change Course Starting Points--New Marine Ecology Course Starting Points--NEW --Marine Ecology LISTserve Costa Rica Course Starting Points--NEW --Costa Rica LISTserve Rivers: An Interdisciplinary Perspective--NEW Evolution & Earth Systems Discussion PRESENT --Evolution & Earth Systems Discussion PAST NS1: Participatory Research in Environmental Science PRESENT --NS1: Participatory Research in Environmental Science PAST Science Center Discussion Site Daily Necessities: Macintosh Resources |Search Engines | Library Resources|Server Stats| Family Album | View My Schedule | View Guestbook | Western College "Multimedia Potpourri" Edge of the Farm Conservation Area Harrison Scholar Hurricane Ike Service Trip 2008 Harrison Scholar Costa Rica Trip 2008 Spider Holding and Sex Education Night, Spring 2008 View Western College Photos/Movies! Spider and Cider Night, Fall 2007 Harrison Scholars New Orleans Service Trip 2007 Harrison Scholar Costa Rica Trip 2007 Harrison Scholars Louisiana Service Trip 2006 Spider and Cider Night, Fall 2006 View Western College Photos/Movies! Crawfish Festival 2006 Human Nature Multiple Intelligences' Lab, March 2006 Popcorn and Pythons Night, Spring 2006 Maple Syrup Festival, 2006 Spider and Cider Night, Fall 2005 Western College Graduation 2005 Spider and Cider Night, Spring 2005 Sharon Long Reception Photos/Movies 2005! Diane Kaufman Retirement Reception, Dec 2004 Spider and Cider Night, Fall 2004 Creek Walk, Natural Systems 1, Fall 2004 Western College Graduation 2004 Winter/Spring Ohio Bird Photo Collection Quicktime Streaming Slideshow Crawfish Festival 2004 Human Nature Multiple Intelligences' Lab, April 2004 Institute of Environmental Sciences Banquet, March 2004 Zoo Visit, Feb 2004 Popcorn and Pythons Slides, Jan 2004 Popcorn and Pythons Movie, Jan 2004 Popcorn and Pythons, Fall 2002 Popcorn and Pythons, Spring 2002 Natural Systems Creek Walk, 2003 Ohio-Louisiana 2003 Crawfish Festival 2001 Louisiana-Ohio Crawfish Festival Movie Western College Graduation Weekend, Spring 2003 Little Miami River Field Trip, April 2003 Collins Run Fish Collecting Trip, 2003 Environmental Effects on Fish Populations in Miami University Creeks Stream Sampling: Fish Diversity Study Slides, 2002 Stream Sampling: Fish Diversity Study MOVIE, 2002 Spring Valley Field Trip 2003 Visiting Southern Louisiana, Spring 2002

It is 11:45:03 AM on Monday, November 23, 2009. Last Update: Wednesday, December 10, 2008