Integrated Coastal Management

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With the promotion of sustainable development concepts at the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro, Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 called for the incorporation of Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) amongst United Nations member states (Beckmann and Coleman 1999). A perceived need for ICM came as a response to the growing frustration amongst policy makers directed towards the difficulties of coastal management, specifically in relation to varying national and international laws, political boundaries that fragment ecological habitats, competing economic interests and the need for stakeholder inclusion in decision making processes.

Since 1992, Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) has become the dominant process for managing natural coastal resources throughout the world and within the United States. While this method of management has been largely accepted amongst policy makers, critical researchers and individuals negatively affected by ICM processes have raised some concerns. This paper will provide an overview of the development and characteristics of ICM, the benefits and critiques of ICM, and provide a context for understanding how ICM is operationalized in the locations we are visiting in this course.

Components of Integrated Coastal Management
It is important to note from the outset that ICM is not a political policy but a process through which political entities determine the best way to manage coastal resources. The concept of ICM is employed under numerous names such as Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM), Integrated Coastal Area Management (ICAM), Integrated Coastal and Ocean Management (ICOM), and Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management (ICAMAM) (Beckmann and Coleman 1999). In this paper the term ICM will be used. ICM even has its own problem solving process, which can be seen below in figure 1.

Figure 1: Generalized ICM Steps (Christie 2005).

Just as ICM has numerous terms that are associated with the same concept, so too are there numerous definitions. Each definition emphasizes a different component associated with ICM. The following examples illustrate the differentiation of ICM definitions. In the article by Christie (2005), the author points out two of the most commonly used definitions of ICM, which can be seen below.

Beckman and Coleman (1999) also provide the dominant term the World Bank uses and its definition.

Given these examples, it is clear to see that there are often very different emphases on what ICM entails and what are the most important components. In the first definition, emphasis is placed on taking into account the economic and political fragmentation associated with coastal areas. The second definition also accounts for the lack political integration but it appears to be more concerned with the participation of various stakeholders (both public and private) in coastal management issues. Finally, the World Bank definition incorporates legal and institutional management in conjunction with environmental and social goals.

The ambiguities in terms of the definitions used to describe ICM are similar to the ambiguity and variety surrounding the concept of sustainable development. Therefore, ICM; like sustainable development, means very different things to different people. Although ICM is not a law itself, there are numerous laws that are employed under the process of ICM that govern coastal management throughout the world and in the United States.

Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972
One of the primary pieces of legislation that governs coastal waters in the United States is the Coastal Management Act of 1972. This piece of legislation defines the coastal zone as:

Éthe coastal waters (including the lands therein and thereunder) and the adjacent shorelands (including the waters therein and thereunder), strongly influenced by each other and in proximity to the shorelines of the several coastal states, and includes islands, transitional and intertidal areas, salt marshes, wetlands, and beaches. (Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972)

According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the primary objective of the coastal zone management act is to "preserve, protect, develop, and where possible, to restore or enhance the resources of the nation's coastal zone" (NOAA 2009). This is done by balancing economic development with environmental conservation through the use of two national programs initiated by the CZMA, the National Coastal Zone Management Program and the National Estuarine Research Reserve System. The National Coastal Zone Management Program strives to Òbalance competing land and water issues in the coastal zone, while estuarine reserves serve as field laboratories to provide a greater understanding of estuaries and how humans impact themÓ (NOAA 2009).

The primary types of coastal environments that are included in these areas consist of those in the table below. The variety of environments and ecosystems included in this list exemplify the need for the ICM process due to the interconnected nature of these ecosystems and the degree of complexity within each one of these types of ecosystems.

Table 1: Coastal Environments (World Resources Institute 2001).

Furthermore, the legal complexity in regard to state, federal and international laws and the sheer geographic scale of these areas warrant an integrated management process. An illustration of the maritime boundaries for legislation below (figure 2) highlights the various legal zones that policy makers need to take into consideration when formulating legislation.

Figure 2: Maritime Boundaries for Legislation: http://csc-s-maps-q.csc.noaa.gov/legislativeatlas/how.html

Currently every coastal state in the U.S., with the exception of Illinois, has a coastal management program enacted, which can be seen below in figure 3. When one considers the nature of ecosystems and environmental problems, clearly delineated political and legislative boundaries can make difficult environmental problems even more complex. This is one reason why integrated coastal management is sought after under the ambit of the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972.

Figure 3: Map of states with coastal zone management programs and the location of Estuarine Research Reserves: http://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/

ICM provides a process by which spatial and legal difficulties can be reconciled in order to manage natural resources effectively. While many ecosystems are encompassed in coastal environments, this paper will only briefly discuss three that are to be visited during this course, estuaries, mangroves and coral reefs.

Coastal Environments
Estuaries
Estuaries are often regarded as some of the most biologically productive and diverse ecosystems on the Earth. The Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 defines an estuary as:

É that part of a river or stream or other body of water having unimpaired connection with the open sea, where the sea water is measurably diluted with fresh water derived from land drainage. The term includes estuary-type areas of the Great Lakes.

Classic examples such as, the Everglades, the Chesapeake Bay and the Mississippi Delta have all provided abundant amounts of wildlife, historically. Currently, however, these areas are some of the most strained ecosystems due to past and present development pressures and pollution issues from not only interior areas but also coastal areas. ItÕs no mistake that these areas have received so much attention as a result of the challenging, large-scale environmental problems that they face such as nutrient runoff, petro-chemicals, and endocrine disrupters.

Mangroves
Historically, mangroves have faced the same persecution as wetlands in many locations throughout the world. Initially perceived as a barrier to settlement and development, the importance of mangroves in protecting and restring ecosystem health is only recently being recognized. However, due to mangroveÕs externalized economic benefits, (i.e. fishery hatching and storm surge protection) they are still being removed and converted into more economically lucrative habitats in unprotected areas, such as shrimp aquaculture plantations.

Coral Reefs
Due to their beauty, abundance and diversity of marine life, coral reefs have been referred to as underwater rainforests (Potter et al. 2004, Goodbody and Thomas-Hope 2002).

Figure 4: Reef zones and evolution: NOAA CORIS Website: http://www.coris.noaa.gov/about/what_are/

Coral reefs have various zones, which can be seen in the figure above, in addition to evolutional stages consisting of fringing reefs, barrier reefs and atolls. As a result of these different habitats, coral reefÕs compositions can look very different and have unique organisms living amongst them depending on their location. While these ecosystems are incredible from a variety of perspectives, they are also being impacted by development in a number of different ways. Various diseases and coral bleaching as a result of increases in water temperature and chemical pollutants are killing reefs at an alarming rate. According to an estimate in a Washington Post article, ÒÉas much as 70 percent of the worldÕs reefs may be destroyed in the next 20 to 40 years if the current rate of destruction continuesÓ (Colwell 1996).

ICM Tools:
In an article by Christie (2005), the author outlines 5 different tools that ICM uses to manage coastal areas. These consist of Marine Protected Areas (MPAÕs), Land-Use control, Marine Zoning and Permit Systems, Conflict Resolution, and Planning and Fisheries Management. Each one of these ICM tools can be used to address a specific environmental problem in an area or even multiple environmental problems within an area.

One of the most commonly implemented tools of ICM is that of Marine Protected Areas (MPAÕs). MPAÕs are generally structured to suit the management needs of a specific location and are classified as such. A map of the different MPAÕs in the U.S. can be seen below. The primary classifications of MPAÕs consist of a conservation focus, level of protection afforded, permanence of protection, constancy of protection, and ecological scale of protection. This allows coastal managers to balance the needs of society and the ecosystem depending on which component (Nature or Society) is in need of it more.

Another method is land-use control through zoning or classification of areas, such as protected or preserved areas. Marine zoning and permit systems also provide managers with the flexibility to restrict, moderate or allow various use types for classified locations. Conflict resolution amongst stakeholders is another tool of ICM, which seeks to reconcile arguments or disputes over marine resources. Finally, Planning and Fisheries Management is employed by ICM in order to ensure the propagation of fish populations. Each one of these tools has a specific purpose and while some distinctly serve one purpose, others may have overlap.

Figure 5: Members of the National System of Marine Protected Areas: http://mpa.gov/national_system/nationalsystem_list.html

Benefits and Critiques of ICM
Like any other management process, there are benefits and critiques for ICM. Below are two tables that highlight the benefits and critiques of ICM as they pertain to ecological, social and economical sectors.

Benefits of ICM: Salomons et. al. 1999
Ecological Social Economical
Preserves unique coastal ecosystems Reduces Damages Enhances coastal zone outputs (primary)
Mitigates pollution and resource overexploitation problems Mitigates pollution and resource overexploitation problems Preserves unique coastal ecosystems (tertiary)

Critiques of ICM:
Ecological Social Economical
Spatially fixed areas cannot protect migrating animal populations. (Robbins 2004) Allowable resource uses (i.e. tourism) exclude indigenous / local resource users. (Robbins 2004) External investment and development disrupts previous resource users. (Nichols 1999)
ÒOne-size-fits-allÓ management approach of ICM may not work best in all cases. (Agardy 2003) Need for society to examine how spatial relationships interact with ICM projects. (McFadden 2008). Expensive and when money runs out no protection.
(Christie 2005)

The benefits and critiques of ICM presented here are not comprehensive but they do provide some of the primary perspectives of where ICM has been successful so far and where it could improve in the future. The final segment of this paper will focus on ICM as it pertains to the Florida Keys and San Salvador Bahamas.

Florida Keys ICM
The Florida Keys represent one of the largest coastal zones managed in the U.S. The assemblage of managed areas can be seen in figure 6 below. Ecosystems represented include the Everglades and mangroves and coral reefs in the Keys to name only but a few. Southern Florida has experienced significant development in the last century and it has

Figure 6: Map of managed areas within southern Florida (Keller and Causey 2005).

altered the way many of the ecosystems in the area function, including the Everglades. As a result of this development, many of the natural pathways that water has traversed in the past have become disrupted, which can be seen in figure 7 below that illustrates the shift in water flow in southern Florida over time.

Figure 7: Map of historical, current and proposed water routes within southern Florida (Keller and Causey 2005).

These shifts as a result of development have created a need for the management of coastal as well as interior natural resources. As a result, NOAA has implemented numerous Marine Park Areas in order to manage the resources directly affected by this increase in development, wetlands in the Everglades and coral reefs in the Keys. A map of the various MPAÕs of southern Florida can be seen below.

Figure 8: Locations of MPAÕs in southern Florida: http://www.coris.noaa.gov/activities/habitat_assessment/

Annual reports on the health of these areas are released to the public as well as monitoring data that reflects achievements of implemented management techniques as well as areas in which management could be improved.

Bahamas ICM
The Bahamas is currently in the process of developing an ICM plan for the state. It has consulted with numerous groups, such as the Horsely Witten Group and the Inter-American Development Bank, and has developed plans for management that are in accordance with ICM guidelines. Despite a lack of an official ICM program, the Bahamas already has 125 marine or littoral protected areas (Earth Trends 2003). On the island of San Salvador, the Bahamas have proposed several National Park Areas, which can be seen below in figure 9, that will be endowed with specific use criteria. These areas will enable the Bahamas to balance economic development with ecological preservation on the island of San Salvador.

Figure 9: Map of proposed national park areas on the island of San Salvador, Bahamas (Bullard and Anderson 2008).

Conclusion
Many of the methods, tools and concepts associated with ICM are intended to mediate pressures from development and the ability of natural resources to cope with the changes that his development brings about. As a result, McFadden duly notes that ÒCoastal environments are dynamic and contestedÓ (2008), which comes as no surprise. While critiques of ICM have been raised, the integrity of ICM lies in its ability to adapt to changing circumstances and apply numerous management methods from its extensive toolkit. Given these abilities, ICM remains one of the most effective processes for managing coastal areas.

Works Cited

Agardy, T. Bridgewater, P. Crosby, M. Day, J. Dayton, P. Kenchington, R. Laffoley, D. McConney, P. Murray, P.A. Parks, J.E. and Peau, L. 2003. Dangerous Targets? Unresolved issues and ideological clashes around marine protected areas. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. 13: 353-67.

Beckman, R. and Coleman, B. 1999. Integrated Coastal Management: The Role of Law and Lawyers. The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 14 (4): 491-522.

Bullard, J. and Anderson, L. 2008. Marine Protected Areas in the Bahamas. http://www.oas.org/dsd/Events/english/08.03.10/Janeen%20Bullard%20LaKeshia%20Anderson%20Marine%20Protected%20Areas%20in%20the%20Bahamas.ppt Last Accessed 7 May 2009.

Christie, P. 2005. Is Integrated Coastal Management Sustainable? Ocean & Coastal Management 48: 208-232.

Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972. United States Congress.

Colwell, Stephen. 10 June 1996. The Battle to Protect Paradise Reef. The Washington Post.
Washington D.C.

Earth Trends. 2003. Bahamas Biodiversity and Protected Areas Profile. http://earthtrends.wri.org Last Accessed 5 May 2009.

Goodbody, Ivan and Thomas-Hope, Elizabeth. 2002. Natural Resource Management for
Sustainable Development in the Caribbean. Canoe Press, University of the West Indies.
Kingston, Jamaica.

Keller, B.D. and Causey B.D. 2005. Linkages between the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary and the South Florida Ecosystem Restoration Initiative. Ocean & Coastal Management 48: 869-900.

McFadden, L. 2008. Exploring the challenges of integrated coastal zone management and reflecting on contributions to ÔintegrationÕ from geographical thought. The Geographical Journal 174 (4): 299-314.

Nichols, K. 1999. Coming to Terms with ÒIntegrated Coastal ManagementÓ: Problems of Meaning and Method in a New Arena of Resource Regulation. Professional Geographer 51(3): 388-399.

NOAA. 2009. NOAA Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management: Coastal Zone Management Act Website: http://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/czm/czm_act.html Last Accessed 15 May 2009.

Potter, Robert B., Barker, David., Conway, Dennis., and Klak, Thomas. 2004. The
Contemporary Caribbean. Pearson Education Limited. New York.

Robbins, Paul. 2004. Political Ecology: a critical introduction. Blackwell Publishing. Malden, MA.

Salomons, W. Kerry Turner, R. Drude de Lacerda, L. and Ramacandran, S. 1999. Perspectives on Integrated Coastal Zone Management. Springer. New York.

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