With this in mind, we decided to do our research on peopleís views of homosexuality, most particularly within our immediate, western culture but also with a broader look at homosexuality in a historical context, rather than the actual function of homosexuality in human society.
To be even more pointed in our approach, we ask the question, what purpose, in the extreme context, does homophobia, or a moral disinclination to subverted sexual behavior, serve? To cite our dear mentor, Robert Wright, "Why should the 'naturalness' of homosexuality in any way affect our moral judgement of it? It is 'natural,' in the sense of being "approved" by natural selection, for a man to kill someone he finds sleeping with his wife. Rape may, in the same sense, be 'natural.' And seeing that your children are fed and clothed is surely 'natural.' But most people rightly judge these things by their consequences, not their origins. What is plainly true about homosexuality is the following: (1) some people are born with a combination of genetic and environmental circumstance that impels them strongly toward a homosexual lifestyle; (2) there is no inherent contradiction between homosexuality among consenting adults and the welfare of other people. For moral purposes (I believe) that should be the end of the discussion (386).
This is basically the same notion we have adopted in beginning to look at homophobia for this paper, and it is exactly this type of structure that leaves us wondering why such poignant opinions of homosexuality and homosexuals have and continue to frequent human societies.
Our hypotheses were as follows: First, in observing the animal kingdom, that because of the lack of self-identification and social climate that would create other conditions, non-human animals would be far more sexually active and far more likely to take part in multi-faceted sexual encounters, including basically unrestricted sexual interaction with varying partners and sexes. The greater implication of this insinuates the notion that in a social vacuum, human sexuality would be far more diversified and less stereotypical. Second, in observing other cultures, (and cultures in a historical context), that the less weight put on the discrepancy between heterosexual and homosexual behavior, and the less value-attachment to sexual interaction within the given culture, the greater the sexual diversity therein. Third, that through our surveys, and studies of human interaction presently, the more experienced one was with homosexuality, as well as any "alternative" sexuality or sexual "identity", (subverted gender roles, varying ideas of sexual constructs, etc.) the more likely people are to have more positive notions concerning homosexuality in general. In other words, the greater the awareness people have, the more accepting and tolerant they will be of non-mainstream sexual and gender roles. In his book "Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity," Bruce Bagemihl offers an entire spectrum of sexual inversion and idiosyncratic behavior within the animal kingdom. In the book, he lists nearly two hundred species of mammals and birds participating in homosexual behavior, including such quirks as the two percent of male ostriches which seem to court males (exclusively) with a lively mating dance not completely dissimilar from that executed by those courting females. The male courting a female, however, omits the speedy approach used in the former, shortens the display, adds a booming song and may include symbolic feeding displays. Unlike male flamingo pairs, who are sometimes known to go as far as rearing fostered chicks together however, male ostriches have not been observed having sex. The most poignant, and closest to home perhaps, involve sexual partnerships and interactions among primates. Both male and female chimps and apes have long been known to take part in homosexual encounters, and it could be said that bonobo societies, in human terms, are very nearly sex-crazed. According to Frans B. M. De Waal, "...The diversity of erotic contacts in bonobos includes sporadic oral sex, massage of another individual's genitals and intense tongue-kissing. Lest this leave the impression of a pathologically oversexed species, [he says], based on hundreds of hours of watching bonobos, that their sexual activity is rather casual and relaxed. It appears to be a completely natural part of their group life. Like people, bonobos engage in sex only occasionally, not continuously. Furthermore, with the average copulation lasting 13 seconds, sexual contact in bonobos is rather quick by human standards (83)." De Waal talks about the relationship bonobos have to one another, as well as their relationship to sex. He cites examples of female-female sexual interaction, male-male, heterosexual, as well as a series of examples of sex used in close family situations. It becomes clear that sex is very much a social tool in bonobo societiesómothers use it to relax their offspring, itís used as a greeting, and in many cases it seems to replace physical aggression in the societal sphere. In an article in the online periodical Salon.com, Susan McCarthy briefly chronicles the reluctance many scientists have to discussing homosexual behavior within the animal kingdom. In her article she actually discusses the Bagemihlís work, which she cites to propel the argument regarding the ridiculousness she feels natural scientists display in discussing said behavior. "Bagemihl," she states, "ridicules ingenious explanations researchers have given for why animals might appear not to be straight arrows. It's dominance. It's a contest of stamina. It's barter for food. It's aggression. It's appeasement. They're confused and don't realize that they're both the same sex. It's a way of reducing tension. They're just playing! ...[And, itís] a greeting." In looking at homosexuality, and the role it has played in the history of human society (western and beyond), one key theme reigns overall. There was an enormous discrepancy in nearly every culture we looked at (in a historical context) between the cultural setting before and its first contact with western explorers, customs, and ethics. In Passions of the Cut Sleeve, regarding male homosexual tradition in China, Bret Hinsch cites early sixteenth century (western) traveler/chroniclers who lavished praise on Chinese culture, speaking of its "efficient government administration, awe-inspiring public works, andÖ opulent and sophisticated life-styles of the upper classes (1)." The one flaw for them, it seems, was the "abominable vice of sodomy." In fact, travelers went so far as to say that such homosexual interactions were "an unforgivable flaw in an otherwise admirable society." Despite such admonitions on the part of western culture, homosexual activity has occurred, (seemingly with free conscience on the part of the participants), in most societies, in some form or another, for all of recorded history (and beyond presumably.) In ancient Greek society sodomy was a way of showing admiration and respect between teacher and student or apprentice. The practice was a sort of initiation, just a part of the process of establishing a relationship between the two individuals. It also served to create a hierarchical relationship between men, as the apprentice/student was most often the recipient of the favor. In Sambian society, there is a great deal of ritualized custom revolving around the ingestion, and more generally the semen transation among the people. Semen is seen in this culture as sort of a commodityóa rare and valuable resource. The color is significant as well. White is viewed as the color of life, and vitality. This is propagated by items such as breast milk, semen, and the gleaming white of healthy teeth. Oral sex, and homosexual acts, (most usually male-male), are a large part of the cultural integration of these beliefs. As can be seen, homosexuality plays (and has played) many roles in many different cultures throughout history. Along with the most obvious reasonsósheer sexual pleasure and legitimate relationships between same-sex couplesóit has become the tool for a plethora of social interactions, relationships, and hierarchies. In the Kama Sutra, young girls were taught by their female nurses to please their lovers sexually later in life. This is an example of female-female interaction for the purpose of a "greater" goal: women learning how to better serve their male partners later in their lives. In several African cultures, both men and women play varying roles according to the way they dress and interact with one another: females kings (dressed as men), surround themselves with male servants, who are dressed as women, and the servants give sexual favors and play typically female roles for the esteemed "king." Also, in over thirty African cultures, female-female marriages have become fairly common practices. 2. Where are you from? Specifically:_________________________________________ 3. Household Income? 4. What are your religious/ Spiritual ties? Specifically:______________________ 5. What do you think is the cause of homosexuality? (Circle all that apply): 6. What effect does the presence of homosexuality have on society? 7. Would you be willing to live with a homosexual (Roommate/Housemate)? 8. What experiences have you had with homosexuals in the past? Circle all that apply: How do you feel you reacted? What role did you play? 9. What is the general feeling your parents have about the issue of homosexuality? 10. On February 12th, Miami hosted the ceremony between Levi Grooms and Matt Agan, its first same-sex marriage. Do you have any feelings on the topic of same-sex marriage? How do you feel it has/will affect the university? 11. How do you feel about the issue of governmentally sanctioned same-sex marriage? (I.E. same-sex couples having the same benefits as male-female couples) 12. In general, what words or feelings do you have on the topic herein? Write anything that comes to mind:
Theory and Paradigm
The questions we originally looked at, spurring our later ones concerning peopleís perspectives on homosexuality, involved instances within the animal world. Much insight can be gained, we discovered, in observing the sexual interaction between animals (most especially primatesóboth because of the unique sexual environments they create, as well as their close connection to and with homo sapiens). Just a small amount of research is enough to see that, first of all, classification and adherence to such a structured paradigm for sexual orientation/identity is completely a human construct. Far beyond our need to label such idiosyncrasies, it seems that within the animal kingdom, this lack of distinction not only allows for less inhibited sexual relationships but to even begin to try to classify sexual encounters between members of the same sex begins to seem absurd.
Another interesting animal interaction is that of the black-rumped flameback, which has actually never been observed in female-male matingóonly male-male. It, as well as the bottlenose dolphin, doesnít form female-male couples, but male dolphins have been often known to form lifelong bonds with other males. Some of the aforementioned dolphins stay strictly to these types of homosexual interactions, whilst others mate with females as well and have sexual interactions (such as beak-genital propulsion) with both sexes. Swans and geese form hearty and stable homosexual relationships that also last for years.
Regardless of whether any of these rationalizations, (as Ms. McCarthy would say), has any legitimate bearing on the animalsí interactions, the fact is, even within what most of us would think of as an objective field, many people seem to be unwilling to leave their pre-conceptions and socially-constructed notions of sexuality at the proverbial door to objective scientific research. The result of this prejudice has lead to years of misinterpretation (in many peopleís minds) as to the dilemma that applies evenly to humansí, as well as other animals, regarding sexual "orientation."
To establish a paradigm that most closely resembles a true "naturalist viewpoint" for examining sexual orientation (which, in and of itself, seems to be an extremely contrived, if not impossible endeavor), we draw upon the work of the psychiatrist and director of the Bisexual Information and Counseling Association in San Diego, Dr. Fritz Klein. To sum up the portion of Dr. Kleinís work we wish to utilize, it is helpful to think of sexual orientation and identity in terms of a continuum of sexual attraction or desire, rather than the rote categories (of heterosexual, homosexual, and bisexual) that people observe normally. In this model, pure heterosexuality is pitted against pure homosexuality at two extreme ends of a spectrum, which all people fall into at some point or another. The idea herein is that people who are completely secluded to one end of the continuum or the other are in the vast minority: the majority fall somewhere between the two poles.
Materials and Methods
After taking some educated stances on some of the most fundamental pointsóideas looking at sexual orientation (the Klein paradigm), human propensity to label what most always is never labeled in the natural world (including our assumptions that things like gender and sexual orientation are thoroughly human constructsónot things that other animals are even conscious of), we began by asking three questions. First, what is the natural structure for sexual interaction/orientation (more specifically, what are the paradigms outside of those which are uniquely human?) Second, what is the historical/cultural context for homosexuality (or, what is the discrepancy between interpretations of sexuality in our culture compared to those in others historically?) And third, what can we learn about and from the way people in our immediate environment view homosexuality?
In practice then, we applied issues of research into the animal kingdom, most specifically those animals most closely related to humans (chimps, bonobos, apes, etc.); anthropological studies of human sexual interaction in cultures past and present; and the survey we administered to a cross section of Miami students.
Survey
Age:
Gender:
Sexual Orientation:
Major/Occupation:
1. Ethnic Background:
a. Caucasian b. Hispanic c. African American d. Native American e.___________
a. Big City b. Small Town c. Rural Area d. Suburbs
a. Under 30,000 b. 31,000 to 55,000 c. 56,000 to 80,000 d. 80,000 to 120,000
e. 121,000 and greater
a. chosen b. genetic c. environmental d.________________________
a. Positive b. Negative c. Both d. Neither
a. Yes b. No c. Unsure
Friend
Family Member
Roommate
Teacher
Other:______________________
a. They agree with me. b. They disagree with me. c. Unsure
a. I feel it has a positive impact on my immediate and broader environment.
b. I feel it has a negative impact.
c. I have no opinion on this matter.
d. _____________________________________________________________________
Results
In cultures that give less plause to the discrepancy of sex for pleasure versus sex for procreation, or merely seem to be less self-actualized as far as the gender roles that have so inflicted western culture, homosexual activity is far more prevalent. We would argue that there is far less sexual inhibition when such are the case as well. In answering the questions "Are you for or against same-sex unions?", "What effect do you think the Same-Sex marriage had on your environment?", "What effect does homosexuality have on society?", and "What is the origin of homosexuality?" we found that people who had a higher household income (namely, $120,000+) had much less of a tolerance for homosexuality than those of the lowest income bracket. We found that 100% of people surveyed who were in the highest income bracket ($120,000 +), were against Same-Sex Unions. Opposite of that, a vast majority of people surveyed in the lowest income bracket ($31,000-55,000) were for Same-Sex Unions. We also found that the majority of people in the highest bracket believed that homosexuality had a negative effect on society as a whole. There was almost an even division of those in the lowest bracket between homosexuality having a positive effect and both a positive and negative effect on society. 60% of those in the lower-upper class bracket ($80,000-120,000) thought that homosexuality had detrimental effects, with another 22% feeling that it had both positive and negative effects. Once again, when we compared the two opposite income brackets, we found that the majority of those in the $31,000 bracket thought that this marriage was positive. Conversely, the majority of those in the highest income bracket had negative feelings about the marriage. And the final interesting piece of information is that none of the people in the highest income range thought that homosexuality was genetic. When we looked at the responses for the same questions and compared the different majors, we again found a huge discrepancy. As may have been expected, 100% of Western and Fine Arts majors were for Same-Sex Unions. And as also may have been expected, more than twice the number of Business majors were against than for. 90% of the business majors surveyed believe that the marriage of Matt and Levi had a negative impact. 66% of business majors answered negatively to this question. And 22% responded that homosexuality has both positive and negative effects. 50% of Western majors feel that homosexuality has a positive effect, along with 50% of the Fine Arts majors. The remaining respondents answered either "neither" or "both." We feel that the relevance of the enormous differences between these results lies in not only values, but exposure. As is pretty well-known, Western Campus has a large population of gay and bisexual residents. We feel that the tolerance shown by Western students is directly resultant of the close proximity in which we live with homosexuals. One of our surveys yielded the results that 56% of those who had never had any experience with a homosexual or homosexuality felt that it brought negative effects on society, nearly 3 times as many of those surveyed who had had experiences with homosexuals. Over twice as many of respondents who answered "yes" to whether or not that had any experiences with homosexuals, also answered positively to the question of what kind of effects homosexuality had on society than those who had never experienced homosexuality. Bullough, Vern L. Sin, Sickness, and Sanity: A History of Sexual Attitudes. Meridian Books: New York, 1977. De Waal, Frans B. M. "Bonobo Sex and Society: The Behavior of a Close Relative Challenges Assumptions About Male Supremacy in Human Evolution." Scientific American. March, 1995 pp. 82-88. Foster, Marion and Murray, Kent. A Not So Gay World: Homosexuality in Canada. The Canadien Publishers: Toronto, 1972. Goodall, Jane. Through a Window: My Thirty Years With the Chimpazees of Gombe. Haughton Mifflin Company: Boston, 1990. Herdt, Gilbert H. "Semen Transactions in Sambia Culture." Ritualized Homosexuality in Melanesia. University of California Press: Los Angeles1984. Hinsch, Bret. Passions of the Cut Sleeve. University of California Press: Los Angeles, 1990. Klein, Fritz. The Bisexual Option. Haworth Press: Portland, 1993. McCarthy, Susan. "The Fabulous Kingdom of Gay Animals." Salon.com Murray, Stephen O. "Woman-Woman Marriage in Africa." Boy-Wives and Female Husbands: Studies of African Homosexualities. St. Martinís Press: New York, 1998. Wright, Robert. The Moral Animal. Vintage Books: New York, 1994.
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Conclusions
From the research, both involving perspectives on same-sex animal relationships, multi-cultural looks at sexual relationships and identities, we came to some fairly concise conclusions. In considering the wide array of sexual interaction of those sources observed, along with a great consideration placed on a general paradigm for looking at sexual identity, we thought it most likely that peopleís extremist views of sexuality (extreme in the sense of strict labels for sexuality, and sexual interaction) are wholly socially constructed.
As we come to the conclusion of this project, we have learned not only about ourselves and our own beliefs, but we have learned a lot about the people who live around us. I think the most startling results we found were that of the discrepancies between household income brackets and the differences between majors.
Another important aspect is that business majors are actively seeking careers that will profit, while most Western majors are more ideal, and are searching for meaning in their careers (of course this is a vast generalization, with some bias). The income resulting from a career in business is similar to the high income bracket which we studied in our survey. And conversely, the probable income for someone with a Western degree is more like that of the low income bracket.
A possible explanation of this may be that social acceptability of homosexuality is more prevalent in lower class situations. Upper class suburbia represents the epitome of contemporary Western views of gender roles and sexual identity constructs, constructs which seem to form more strict regimes and than in lower class regions.
Sources
Bagemihl, Bruce. Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity. Saint Martinís Press: New York, 1999.
http://www.salon.com/it/feature/1999/03/cov_15featurea3.html
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