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A stereotype is defined as a generalization about a group of people in which identical characteristics are assigned to virtually all members of the group regardless of actual variation among the members. Within particular cultures those generalizations and little pictures are often very similar among individuals. Also within most cultures, what people view as normative is also very similar. This is due in part to the images that are most widely perpetuated and broadcast by the media of that culture. According to Aronson, Wilson, and Akert:
2. Relevance of your research question
As stated before, in 1933 the psychological team Katz and Braly developed an experimental design that has become known as the classic stereotype assessment technique. By providing a list of 84 adjectives, they instructed respondents to read through the list and identify those adjectives that made up the cultural stereotype for various nationality groups. In 1951 and 1969 this same experiment was replicated at Princeton University, in which students were asked to describe various ethnic and national groups. The results showed that upon initial experimentation, the list of early stereotypes for each of these groups were considerably negative. But as the years passed and the study was conducted again, the stereotypes became less negative.
As previously stated, we hypothesize that the stereotypical descriptions of those groups mentioned in the Princeton experiments will have become far less negative than they were during the conduction of the Princeton Trilogy. As citizens of a country that has been called the melting pot for our planet, many people of various origins, with varied appearances, and of diverse beliefs populate much of North America. Despite this fact, most of these people, during the relatively short existence of the United States of America, have remained physically and/or emotionally separated from one other; due to certain status-bearing characteristics. These attributes include qualities such as age, gender, socioeconomic status, race, religion, and others. Groups such as Americans, Japanese, Jews, and African Americans, to name a few, were classified under a number of the more familiar stereotypes that have circulated within the American schemata.
3. Materials and Methods
In order to test our hypothesis, we surveyed 123 students, both male and female, on Miami UniversityÕs Oxford campus. We chose not to survey students on MiamiÕs Western College Campus or other students involved in WCP 222 this semester. This decision was made on the basis that many of these students had already been informed as to the purpose of our experiment. And in the attempt to avoid receiving any dishonest or biased feedback that may have resulted from such information, we attempted to avoid distributing our surveys to these students. We distributed our surveys for a period of three weeks, to as many students as were willing to comply (and of course, those who didnÕt fall under the two previously discussed categories). These students included friends, class mates, and strangers. In keeping with the research study of the Princeton Triology, we decided to focus soley on Miami UniversityÕs graduate and undergraduate student body, and did not survey any faculty of staff. As a group, we conducted a similar study with the students of Miami University in Oxford. On our survey we sought reports of the stereotypical descriptions for various groups which we distinguished by age (children, teenagers, adults, and senior citizens), gender, socio-economic standing (upper-class, middleclass, and lower-class), race (Black, Asian-, Native-, and Hispanic-Americans, and Whites), and nationality (American, British, Irish, Mexican, Asian, German, Italian, African, and French).
We also inquired MiamiÕs students about other group stereotypes, such as those given according to oneÕs marital status (married, single, widowed, and divorced), sexual preference (heterosexual, bisexual, lesbian, and gay), hair color (blond, brunette, and redhead), height (short, average height, and tall), and sexual activity (sexually active males and females, sexually inactive males and females). As a result of this line of questioning, had initially hoped to discover whether or not the degree of stereotyping, for those groups described by PrincetonÕs students, had become more of less harsh. Thus, the actual survey that we distributed to MiamiÕs Òmain campus studentsÓ was formatted as follows:
Directions (I): Please complete the personal information requested below.
1. Age: ____________
2. Sex: (Circle one) male female
3. Race: Black White Hispanic Asian/Pacific Islander Native American
Directions (II): Below is an extensive list of categories/titles based on a number of diverse human qualities. Under the list Primary Characteristics there are five main characteristic subsets. Under the list Secondary Characteristics there are a list of six main characteristic subsets. Choose at least one category from each subset and, next to that category, write in as many adjectives or characteristics that are commonly attributed to people in that group that you can think of; commonly attributed either by society in general, your personal peers, or yourself. (Note: There is a list of adjective provided on the back of this page. The adjectives which you attribute to each chosen category can be positive, negative, or both.)
Primary Characteristics
o Age
Children
Teenagers
Adults
Senior Citizens
_________________________
o Sex
Males
Females
_________________________
o Economic Status
Upper-class
Middle-class
Lower-class
_________________________
o Origin of Race in the U.S.
Black
White
Asian/ Pacific Islander American
Native American
Hispanic American
Middle Eastern American
_________________________
o Nationality
North American, USA
North American, Canadian
American (South)
American (Central)
Mexican
British
Irish
Asian/ Pacific Islander
German
Italian
African
Caribbean
French
Greek
Polish
Russian
Middle Eastern
Other: ______________
_________________________
o Hair Color
Blonde
Brunette
Redhead
Bald
__________________________
o Height
Tall
Average
Short
___________________________
o Build
Thin
Muscular
Average
Heavy
___________________________
o Marital Status
Single
Married
Involved (Significant other)
Divorced
Widow/ Widower
___________________________
o Sexual Orientation
Gay
Lesbian
Heterosexual Men
Heterosexual Women
Bisexual
Transexual
___________________________
o Sexual Activity
Sexually Active Male
Sexually Active Female
Sexually Inactive Female
Sexually Inactive Male
Directions(III): Now go back to the top of characteristic list. Below each main characteristic subset, place a check by that category/categories that apply to you or that correlate with how you label yourself. If none of those provided apply to you, in the space below each subset, fill in the word or phrase that you would use to describe yourself in terms of that particular subset.
On the back of the first page a long list of adjectives was also provided. Most of these adjectives were provided during the conducting of each experiment of the Princeton Trilogy. All respondents were advised, within the second set of directions, to take a look at this list before continuing.
After distributing 123 surveys we took note of a number of trends in our data set.
A. We recorded the frequency with which the most popular adjectives reoccurred and
which groups they were most frequently used to describe.
B. We took note of the groups which our respondents chose to discuss most frequently.
C. We gaged our list of adjectives from one to three. 1=negative, 2=neutral, and 3=positive
* D. We compared our findings with those of the actual Princeton Trilogy experiments.
4. Results & Observations
After taking note of the trends being demonstrated within our survey collection, we constructed a chart containing the most noticeable adjective usage. On this chart, our entire list of characteristics is provided and an interger is assigned to each adjective. This integer represents the number of times that adjective was assigned to that particular characteristic group.
Having also gaged each adjective on our provided list, as negative(1), neutral(2), or positive(3), we compared our own findings with those of the Princeton Trilogy studies, and made some extra interesting observations as well.
Adjectives List
Superstitious 2 Articulate 2 Lazy 1
Sly 1 Ignorant 1 Obedient 2
Musical 2 Nonchalant 2 Na•ve 1
Inquisitive 2 Loud1 Consistent 3
Aggressive 2 Needy 2 Stupid1
Violent 1 Unreliable 1 Nature-Loving 2
Sensitive 2 Appreciative 3 Materialistic 1
Observant 2 Talkative 2 Up front 2
Arrogant 1 Ambitious 2 Hostile 1
Imitative 2 Athletic 3 Rhythmic 3
Loyal 3 Uneducated 1 Sexually Perverse 1
Artistic 3 Straightforward 3 Sportsmanlike 3
Kind 3 Honest 3 Rude 1
Observant 3 Dramatic 1 Dependable 3
Wise 3 Critical 1 Courageous 3
Presumptuous 1 Religious 2 Supportive 3
Submissive 2 Outgoing 3 Introverted 2
Argumentative 2 Compliant 2 Individualistic 2
Considerate 3 Polite 3 Outspoken 2
Timid 2 Trusting 2 Direct 2
A. The adjectives that were most popular appear on the chart above. Considering individual groups, it was discovered that the adjectives which we had previously deemed to be more neutral were used most frequently over all. Therefore, adjectives such as musical, aggressive, sensitive, talkative, and ambitiuous were the stereotypical adjectives which people seemed most comfortable listing. Nonetheless, a few of the most obvious and well know stereotypes still shown through, such as lazy children and teens, musical blacks and Mexicans, materialistic and arrogant Americans, and stupid blondes.
B. Since respondents were given the choice of what groups to discuss, we noticed that there were certain groups which they chose more frequently than others. These groups were children and teens, males and females alike, upper and lower class persons, blacks and whites, North Americans, blondes, tall people, thin, muscular and heavy people, gays and lesbians, and sexually active men and women.
C. In comparison with the actual Princeton studies, two major groups were included in the Princeton as well as our own study. These were also Americans and specifically African Americans. Concerning African Americans, the 1969 Princeton study demonstrated that the dominant stereotypes were high musical ability, a happy-go-lucky nature, laziness, overall love for pleasure, and a tendency to be ostentatious. Our study found that the more current stereotypes for African Americans included laziness, musical ability, loyalty, and high athletic ability. If the negativity values of the adjectives used in the 1969 and the values of those communicated in our experiment are compared, you find that although some stereotypes have continued, most have either begun to fade or are no longer as comfortably discussed, in relation to African Americans as a whole. In terms of Americans in general, the 1969 study provided stereotypes such as a tendency toward materialism, high ambition, a love for pleasure, an industrious attitude, and conventionalism. In our study, respondents communicated stereotypical adjectives such as intelligent, ambitious, aggressive, materialistic, arrogant, and lazy. Unlike the case with our findings concerning African Americans, the existing stereotypes for North Americans was less positive than those expressed in 1969. Therefore, since we hypothesized that the stereotypical descriptions of those groups mentioned in the Princeton experiments would have become far less negative than they were during the conduction of the Princeton Trilogy, we discovered that our hypothesis was correct in terms of African American assigned stereotypes, but incorrect in terms of Americans in general. We feel that these result may be due to a number of factors. 1)The majority of the respondents were European American. Therefore, as a group that fits under the category of American, but not African American, they may have found it easier to communicate stereotypes for a category under which they themselves fell. 2) There is also a tendency of respondents to attempt to give answers that they believe will please the surveyor or experimental conductor. Considering the fact that two out of the three people in our group distributing surveys were African American, surveyors may not have felt free enough to list more negative stereotypes, in fear that it would (correctly or incorrectly) reflect on their own personal beliefs. And lastly, there exists in todayÕs society a tendency for being Òpolitically correctÓ in terms of describing people who are unlike our selves.
5. Discussion & Conclusions
Concerning additional questions that we might have concerning such data, we as a group, thought it would have been interesting to explore the stereotypes that came along with religious affiliation. Although we asked some personal questions of our respondents, we did not inquire their religious affiliations or lack there of. Therefore, for future reference we would be interested in exploring whether religious belief could be correlated with the degree of negativity expressed about various groups in terms of commonly attributed group characteristics.
Aronson, Elliot & Timothy D. Wilson, & Robin M. Akert. Social Psychology; Third
Edition. Longman: New York, 1999.
Devine, Patricia G. Are Racial Stereotypes Really Fading? The Princeton Trilogy
Revisited, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin Vol. 21 (II), November 1995,
1139-1150.
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