"Rape Myth" Acceptance Among Miami University Students

"Rape Myth" Acceptance
Among Miami University Students

Abstract
Sexual assault is a prevalent problem in the United States. Scientists from various disciplines have presented their own theories to explain this problem. It is believed that "rape myth" acceptance may be an indicator of sexually aggressive behavior, which can lead to rape. According to Lonsway and Fitzgerald, rape myths are "attitudes and beliefs that are generally false but are widely and persistently held, and that serve to deny and justify male sexual aggression against women (Lonsway and Fitzgerald, 1994)." For this reason, scientists have become very interested in the acceptance of rape myths especially among college students.
This study tests the acceptance of rape myths among Miami University students. The study also attempts to determine which theories of rape students agree with. The results from this study show that rape myth acceptance is rather low but that there is no difference between the responses of males or females. The study also showed that most students accepted the feminist theory of rape.

Introduction
According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, it is estimated that in the United States, a woman is raped every six minutes (Lonsway and Fitzgerald 1994). Many of the findings from studies conducted by other U.S. organizations support this statistic. Despite the prevalence of rape in the United States, it is estimated that only 16% of these rapes are ever reported. This low number has attracted the attention of many scientists and sociologists who are interested in the causes for such a low percentage of reported rapes. This interest has led to the study of many of the factors that are involved in a sexual assault such as the motivations of the rapists and the mindsets of the victims. Many theories have been introduced to explain these factors and the prevalence of rape in our society.
The first of these theories is known as the Feminist Theory of Rape. This theory focuses on the idea that rape is "a response to the social inequality between the sexes and the tendency of this inequality to affect the way men and women interact sexually (Ellis, 1989)." In this feminist theory, rape is seen as simply another byproduct of the patriarchal hierarchy in our society. Rape is just another way in which women are objectified and oppressed by men. This theory sees rape as not a sexual act but an act of dmination (Ellis, 1989).
The second theory is known as the Social Learning Theory of Rape. In this theory, it is believed that rape is a learned behavior (Ellis, 1989). Social learning theorists believe that rape is learned through a four-part process: the modeling effect, the sex-violence linkage effect, the "rape myth" effect, and the desensitization effect (Ellis, 1989). The modeling effect is when men imitate the violence against women that they see in real life and/or in the media. The sex-violence linkage effect is when men learn to associate sex and violence by watching violent pornography or slasher films. The "rape myth" effect is the perpetuation of various "rape myths" that excuse rape. The desensitization effect is when society is desensitized to the painful experiences of rape victims. Social learning theorists believe that these four processes are learned mostly from the media, specifically violent pornography and slasher films (Ellis, 1989).
A third theory is known as the Evolutionary Theory of Rape. This theory focuses on the idea that there must be a biological explanation for not only the prevalence of rape but also for the attitudes of rapists and the victim response. In this theory, it is believed that natural selection favors males who are prone to using forceful tactics to impregnate females. It is also believed that natural selection favors females who resist copulation with males with little investment in their offspring, including rapists (Ellis. 1989). This difference is believed to come from the fact that males are biologically "wired" to spread their genes as much as they can and that females are biologically "wired" to only copulate with mates who will provide for her and her child. Evolutionary theorists believe that these biological differences have evolved into a situation that promotes rape as a reproductive alternative for men who cannot secure a mate due to their lack of resources (Thornhill and Thornhill, 1983).
These different theories all have various empirical evidence to support them, making it difficult to accept only one. I am inclined to believe that the answer must lie in some combination of all three of the theories. While I am very interested in the theories of rape, I am mostly interested in the extent of the acceptance of the various "rape myths" that perpetuate social misunderstanding of sexual assault and.
The first scientist to study "rape myths" was Nancy Burt. She defined "rape myths" as "prejudicial, stereotyped, or false beliefs about rape, rape victims, and rapists (Lonsway and Fitzgerald, 1994)." While this is a good definition to start from, I think that Lonsway and Fitzgerald offer a more comprehensive definition. "Rape myths are attitudes and beliefs that are generally false but are widely and persistently held, and that serve to deny and justify male sexual aggression against women (Lonsway and Fitzgerald, 1994)." I feel that this definition of "rape myths" allows for the combination of some of the aspects of the Feminist theory and the Social Learning theory with the evolutionary theory. This definition also deals with the idea that a high acceptance of rape myths is a precursor to sexual aggression and rape.
Through this study, I plan to investigate the acceptance of rape myths on MiamiÕs campus. Because previous studies have shown low correlations between rape myth acceptance and higher education, I hypothesize that rape myths will not be widely accepted by the Miami student body. I also hypothesize that while the acceptance of "rape myths" will be generally low, they will be more accepted by men than by women. I also hypothesize that most people, especially women, will accept the feminist theory of rape above all the other theories.

Methods
To test my hypothesis, I generated a survey that was filled out by students randomly selected from the student body of the Oxford campus of Miami University. The survey presents a hypothetical rape situation followed by a series of questions that test the participantsÕ acceptance of the presented rape myths. The rape myths examined are a compilation of those presented in BurtÕs 1980 Rape Myth Acceptance Scale and other commonly heard myths. Following these five questions is the question, "Would you consider this situation rape?" The next four questions are designed to determine which theories of rape (feminist, social learning, evolutionary) people accept and which they do not.
In order to create a clear and effective survey, I passed out ten surveys on a trial basis (Figure 1). This survey presented a hypothetical acquaintance rape situation, which possessed elements of several rape myths. Following this story were a series of true/false questions that tested rape myth acceptance. After the trial run, I examined the results of these surveys to determine if the survey was worded in a way that allowed the test subjects true beliefs to come through. Due to the fact that all of the subjects responded with exactly the same answers to every question, I decided that this survey was not effective.
I created a second survey that presented the same story and asked the same questions (Figure 2). The only aspect I changed was the way in which respondents could answer the question. The true/false option was substituted with a scale of 0 to 3: 0 = not true, 1 = partly true, 2 = mostly true, 3 = completely true. I put this survey through another trial run and the results showed some variance. I decided that people might feel uncomfortable stating that the rape myth in question was completely true or completely false so I allowed for some space in between.
This new survey was completed by 85 Miami students. I passed out surveys in Alexander Dining Hall, Greystone Deli, McKee Hall, and Peabody Hall. The data from these surveys were then imputed into Statview 5.0 for analysis.

*Figure 2*
This is a survey for WCP 222. This survey is completely anonymous and the results will not be published. This survey deals with issues of Òrape mythsÓ and may be uncomfortable for some to read. If you do not feel comfortable taking this survey, please feel free to return it blank.

Please read the following hypothetical situation and answer the questions that follow.

ÒJane was at a house party wearing a short skirt, a low-cut top, and knee-high boots. She had been drinking and was visibly intoxicated. Jane had a reputation for hooking up with guys at parties like this one. One of the guys at the house, John, began to flirt with Jane. After talking with him for a while, Jane initiated some kissing. John asked her to go upstairs with him and she consented. Upstairs, they continued to kiss and there was some light fondling. John began to take off JaneÕs clothes but she protested and said, ÒI donÕt want to have sex.Ó John ignored her and continued to undress her. Jane said, ÒnoÓ again but she did not physically fight him. He continued to ignore her protests and forced Jane to have sex.Ó

Please circle one: male female

0 = not true, 1 = partly true, 2 = mostly true, 3= completely true

0 1 2 3 The fact that Jane initiated the kissing meant that she wanted to have sex, regardless of what she said.

0 1 2 3 What happened to Jane was not rape because she did not physically fight back.

0 1 2 3 JohnÕs actions were understandable because Jane was wearing revealing clothing.

0 1 2 3 JohnÕs actions were understandable because Jane had been drinking.

0 1 2 3 JohnÕs actions were understandable because Jane agreed to go upstairs with him.

0 1 2 3 Would you consider this situation rape?

true false Men rape because they are motivated by lust and desire.

true false Men rape because they learned the behavior from society.

true false Men rape because of the need to dominate and control women.

true false Men rape to procreate.

Thank you for your time!

Results
In order to interpret the results of the first six questions, I decided to consider the answer Ô0Õ to signify non-acceptance and the response Ô1-3Õ to signify acceptance, no matter to what degree. While this scale does not take into account the degree to which people accept these myths, I am only testing general acceptance.
The first tests I ran in Statview, compare the response to the question to the gender of the respondent. None of the results for the tests regarding the first five questions that test rape myth acceptance showed any significant difference. They all had chi square p-values greater than .05.
The data from the sixth question that asked whether or not this situation could be considered rape could not be run through Statview due to the fact that 100% of those surveyed answered yes. There is no significant difference between the response and the gender of the respondent. They all had chi square p-values greater than .05.
The last four questions that address the different theories were also run through Statview. All but one of these questions show no significant difference between the response and the gender of the respondent. They had chi-square p-values greater than .05. Question #9, "Men rape because of the need to dominate and control women," showed a significant difference between the response and the gender of the respondent. More females agreed with this statement than males. The chi square p-value was .oo42, which is less than .05.

Discussion
Due to the fact that there was no significant difference between the acceptance of the rape myths and the gender of the respondent, I reject my hypothesis that more women will reject the rape myths than men, and accept the null hypothesis. Any difference in this data is due to chance alone.
As I hypothesized, rape myth acceptance on this campus is relatively low, with less than one fourth of the respondents accepting the myths presented in the first four questions. The fifth question, however, shows 27% acceptance, which is much higher than the previous four questions. This question reads, "What John did was understandable because Jane agreed to go upstairs with him." I suspect that this question was subject to the most acceptance because there is more sexual assault education regarding the myths presented in the first four questions than this myth.
For the questions that deal with the theories of rape, there was no significant difference between the answers and the gender of the respondents for the questions regarding the social learning theory of rape and the evolutionary theory of rape. For the question regarding the feminist theory of rape, there was a significant difference. Due to this, I accept my hypothesis that more women than men agree with the feminist theory of rape.
More than half of the respondents answered yes to question 7 which is a part of the feminist and evolutionary theory of rape. Almost half of the respondents agreed with the social learning theory of rape and answered yes to question 8. More than three fourths of the respondents agreed with the feminist theory of rape and answered yes to question 9. Approximately one eighth of the respondents agreed with the evolutionary theory of rape and answered yes to question 10. These results show that most people agree with the feminist theory of rape. I believe that this is due to the awareness the feminist movement has brought to the issue of sexual assault. The most education about sexual assault comes from the feminist movement and therefore, teaches their beliefs regarding rape, including the feminist theory of rape.
The social learning theory of rape is the second most accepted theory. I believe that this is due to the fact that sociologists are also very vocal about sexual assault and its relation to society. People are exposed to the social learning theory of rape in media broadcasts and sociology courses in the university. I believe that the evolutionary theory of rape is the least accepted due to the fact that it is not discussed in a public forum. PeopleÕs responses to question 9 shows that 76% of them agree with a major aspect of the evolutionary theory. Perhaps if more education were presented regarding the evolutionary theory, more people would agree with it.
I was very interested to find that 100% of the respondents believed that the hypothetical situation was indeed rape. I was especially surprised due to the fact that 12% of the respondents agreed with the myth presented in question two. "What happened to Jane was not rape because she did not physically fight back." To agree with both of these questions is contradictory yet 12% of the respondents did agree to both. I believe that these responses are due to the placement of the questions in the survey. The questions that test rape myth acceptance come before the question that asks whether or not the situation is rape. I did this intentionally so as to not present the situation as rape from the beginning. I felt that having this question first would put the respondents into the mindset that this survey is about rape. I feared that they would answer the questions the politically correct way, not according to their own personal beliefs.

Conclusions
Overall, my research shows that rape myth acceptance is low on this campus, even among men. It is promising to see this trend. As discussed above, rape myth acceptance is an indicator of sexually aggressive behavior. If rape myth acceptance is low on this campus, it would mean that sexually aggressive behavior is low. This could mean that there are less incidents of sexual assault on this campus.
While much of the previous studies have shown that rape myth acceptance is low among educated people, several studies have shown rape myth acceptance to be rather high on college campuses. While my results dispute these findings, my sample size was rather small compared to the population of this university. I also only sampled students on one area of campus. A survey of more students on several areas of campus, including fraternity and sorority houses/suites, may show results more in line with previous studies of college campuses.

Bibliography

Amir, Menachem. Patterns In Forcible Rape. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1971.

Ellis, Lee. Theories of Rape: Inquiries into the Causes of Sexual Aggression. New York: Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, 1989.

Groth, A. Nicholas. Men Who Rape: The Psychology of the Offender. New York: Plenum Press, 1979.

Lonsway, Kimberly A. & Louise F. Fitzgerald. "Rape Myths in Review." Psychology of Woman Quarterly v18 (1994): 133-162.

Schultz, Leroy G. Rape Victimology. Springfield: Charles Thomas, 1975.

Struckman-Johnson, Cindy & David Struckman-Johnson. "Acceptance of Male Rape Myths Among College Men and Women." Sex Roles v27 (1992): 85-101.

Thornhill, Randy & Craig T. Palmer. A Natural History of Rape: Biological Bases of Sexual Coercion. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2000.

Thornhill, Randy & Nancy Wilmsen Thornhill. "Human Rape: An Evolutionary Analysis." Ethology and Sociobiology v4 (1983): 137-173.

Ward, Colleen A. Attitudes Toward Rape: Feminist and Social Psychological Perspectives. London: SAGE Publications, 1995.

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