A Study of Social Behaviors of Human and Nonhuman Primate Groups

This topic submitted by Katy Workman and Michelle Brasseur ( brassemr@muohio.edu ) on 4/3/05. [ Human Nature Team: Katy Workman and Michelle Brasseur-Section: Cummins/Wolfe]

Bonobo Background Information
"The distribution of the pygmy chimpanzee (Pan Paniscus), commonly called the bonobo, is restricted to a small area of tropical swampy rain forest, south of the Zaire River. The term "pygmy" is inaccurate because the bonobo is not much smaller than the common chimpanzee, but has a slighter frame, narrower shoulders and a smaller more rounded head," (Collinge p. 110). "Ébonobos , with their slender frames, effortless bipedalism and human-like behaviors have almost replaced the common chimpanzee as the best model for early ape-like hominidÉ," (Collinge p. 111).
"In bonobos, the strongest affiliations are observed among adult females and between sexes, and the most common foraging units are mixed parties with adult males, adult females and their young, and bisexual groupings of a male and female.
"Despite the higher levels of copulatory behavior and the fact that bonobo females are in estrous for longer periods, the interbirth intervals and general fecundity are the sameÉ It is suspected that the excessive sexual activity in bonobo society serves more to manipulate relationships than to enhance reproductive success," (Collinge p. 112 )

Japanese Macaque Background Information
"Japanese macaques are medium-sized, quadrapedal monkeys found only on the islands of Japan, where they range from 31 to 41 degrees latitude," (Fedigan p. 218)
"The core of each troop is comprised of groups of related females and their immature offspring with unrelated adult males.
"Young females stay close to their mother in their adolescent years and establish themselves as permanent members of the maternal social network. Adolescent males on the other hand move off to join the peripheral males who live on the edge of the main troop." (Pavelka p. 7) "The undisputed higher dominance of the alpha male over the alpha female Ð which she does not challenge Ð is curious because the alpha male requires her support in order to acquire and maintain his position." (Pavelka p. 40)
"É while disputes between females (female-female) and disputes between males (male-male) are generally settled quickly and decisively, male-female disputes generally drag on and see-saw back and forth, especially as females attempt to enlist aid from other group members." (Fedigan p. 222)

I. Introduction
The purpose of this study is to observe the social behaviors of both human and nonhuman primates, and to produce results that will effectively illustrate the parallels drawn between physical interactions of these groups. "Not surprisingly, anthropologists, with their emphasis on the study of human-kind, first put their research energy into the study of nonhuman primates as reflections of the lifeway patterns of early human society." (Collinge p. 3) Our ultimate goal through this study is to gain insight and further understanding into the nature of human nature by comparing human social behaviors with those of two other nonhuman primate groups. To avoid the biases of past research studies, we are observing three very diverse primate populations: the Japanese Macaques at the Cincinnati Zoo, the Bonobos at the Cincinnati Zoo, and a class of kindergarten students at Miami UniversityÕs Child Development Center. Contrary to the previous research studies that employed only the knowledge of early human society to decode the mysteries of observed nonhuman primate behaviors, we are instead examining the social behaviors of these three primates in lieu of their common ancestors, and attempting to decode the mysteries of innate human behaviors.
Question:
Which primate group, Bonobos, Japanese Macaques, or human children, will have the most frequent, most aggressive physical interactions?
Hypothesis:
We believe that the non-human primate groups, the Bonobos and Japanese Macaques, will have more frequent physical interactions than the children. This hypothesis is constructed based on the human social practices that teach children to "keep their hands to themselves." Therefore it is possible that their physical interactions will be more violent when they do occur, considering violence is a common outlet of aggression. Violence is often a display of aggression among nonhuman primates as well, but we believe that it manifests itself in the form of a decipherable pattern or procedure. We are also observing the sexes of the individuals and the nature of the interactions that occur between the sexes, whether they are aggressive or peaceful.
According to studies done by Mary McDonald Pavelka on Japanese Macaques, "Male social success Ð which translates into a system of support which translates into high rank Ð does have a tendency to improve with age and experience." (Pavelka p. 38) Based on this theory and the fact that the males tend to travel and move off as they grow into adulthood, we predict that the older males in captivity at the zoo will be more independent and tend towards more aggressive behavior with other males. Similarly, we predict that the females will have more affectionate interactions overall as one experiment that we researched states: "It is apparent that females are the major groomers, since 88.7% (4,021 bouts) of all social grooming were performed by females," (Monkeys of Arashiyama, 215). As far as relationships between males and females, because we are beginning our observations in the spring, we hypothesize that we will see aggressive, but non-violent behavior. "Chasing behavior of males towards females increases dramatically during mating season." (Pavelka p. 107)
Predictions for the Bonobos are a bit different because of what our research has revealed. "One important element characterizing the relationship between adult males is aggressive interactions. Adult males have the highest frequency of aggressive interactions, relative to associations between members of other age-sex classes." (Kano p. 176) Based on this study, we hypothesize that any males kept in the exhibit simultaneously will tend towards more aggressive interactions, with one the dominant and the other submissive. "The pattern of antagonistic behavior between females strongly suggests that dominant-subordinate relationships (or the rank system) are underdeveloped in females compared to males. In general, relations between females are peaceful." (Kano p. 190) Similar to our predictions with the Japanese Macaques, we think that the female bonobos will be more peaceful, though there interactions may be somewhat limited. The same study indicates that, "The frequency of grooming between males and females is extremely high." (Kano p. 186) Accordingly, our prediction is that the males and females will tend towards more affectionate behaviors, and only resort to violence if food is involved.
"Probably as a result of the most temperamental differences, boys and girls, like monkey and baboon youngsters, tend to play with others of the same sex Ð from the first moment where such a choice is possible," (Freedman p. 267). Incorporating FreedmanÕs research into our own personal experiences, we hypothesize that the female human children will be more peaceful amongst themselves, but will occasionally experience aggressive interactions with the males. We also predict that the young males will show mildly aggressive behavior towards each other on occasion, and a little less often towards the females as an assertion of dominance.
Including research and results from all three primate group observations, this study addresses several fundamental issues of human nature. It not only asks questions of violence as a part of human and primate nature, but also challenges the more general prevalence of societal teachings concerning all kinds of physical interactions. "It is proper to ask whether concepts and methods devised from the study of non-human species could be useful also in the human case. Our capacities for cognitive functioning, particularly for language, introduce new dimensions into behavior, including cultural diversity of a different order from that encountered among other animals." (Hinde p.334). We are looking for procedures that are involved in individual interactions, including protocol for grooming among the non-human primates. We believe that these procedures among our evolutionary relatives and the interactions that are taught among children will draw us to some conclusions about societyÕs messages on physical contact.
We plan to accomplish frequent observations and record patterns in all three of the primate groups. We will be looking for behaviors and protocols of dominance, including male over female, as well as dominance within each sex. "Observational studies have revealed that high-ranking females are not born dominant but rather acquire the rank of their family through various social processes that are progressively better understood. Females receive support from their relatives and from unrelated females in their conflicts with lower-ranking females," (Monkeys of Arashiyama p. 254). Once we have accumulated all of our data, our goal is to be able to draw intelligent conclusions about each groupÕs acceptability of different types of physical interactions that will hopefully support our hypotheses, and gain more information about society and human nature.
II. Relevance
Historically, studies have been done to gain more in depth understanding of specific non-human primates groups independent of human nature and shared ancestors, Primatologists seem to have had only the relationship between nonhuman primates in mind. "Not surprisingly, anthropologists, with their emphasis on the study of human-kind, first put their research energy into the study of nonhuman primates as reflections of the lifeway patterns of early human society," (Intro to Primate Behavior, p. 3). It is important to note that research of this kind, that actually studies animals and humans in the same experiment, is a relatively recent development, "It is only during the past five years that both concepts and methods from animal social ethology have been applied directly to the study of human social interaction. Most of these studies have focused upon preschool behavior," (Dominance Relations 191). It is particularly important to us that we chose too very different non-human primate groups for our study, in that the bonobos are chimps where the Japanese Macaques are monkeys. However we felt that a certain relation to humans was helpful to our study. "In their anatomy, social behavior, vocalizations, sexual exploits, infant care, and mental abilities, bonobos possess an eerie human quality," (Primate Social Relationships 93). Our research aims to draw the connections between non-human and human primates and their societal similarities.
When considering our subjects and the ways in which we plan to interact and think of them, we refer to Jane Goodall as a model. She is an amazing woman and scientist, using methods of personification to link her chimps to both herself and people in general. This not only develops an emotional attachment to the project, but strong links to the study and its implications of human nature. One of the most predominant and complex aspects of human nature with which we will be dealing is that of social norms and conformity, as specifically outlined by Aaronson. This is based on the human subjectsÕ willingness to conform to societyÕs teaching of the respect for boundaries and personal space, despite evidence that it may be in our nature to break those boundaries.
We can also see the implications of comparing humans to Japanese macaques and bonobos, "Similarity is the shadow of difference. Two things are similar by virtue of their difference from another; or different by virtue of oneÕs similarity to a third. So it is with individualsÉDifference is the shadow of similarity," (Ridley, pg. 38). We will be interested to see how shared differences from one group might draw connections between the two others, particularly between humans and bonobos. We can also see how the children we will study will support PinkerÕs arguments about the combination of nature and nurture and the problems with the blanks slate. Children are taught not to touch each other, but often act out in violent ways when they choose to go against that social norm. An illustration in one of our resources showed, "Attack of a boy, approximately 11 months old, against a baby girl who tried to take an object from his hand. The boy pushes the girl over and scratches her at the same time," (Primate Aggression Territoriality, and Xenophobia 446).
Some larger questions our project relates to are how would our society be different if children were not taught to respect each otherÕs spaces? Could this adversely affect male-female relationships? Adult-child relationships? Are humans more peaceful because of society? What are the real benefits of a society in which we are taught not to touch each other, but can see countless acts of violence in our media? Will there be evidence of this contradiction in the children we study? We are hoping that our project will help to answer some of these questions, and that it can be used as a stepping stone for further investigations into human nature and our relationships with other primates.
III. Materials and Methods
This is an observation-based project. The data is collected in ten minute intervals, with a different observation sheet devoted to each. We realize that certain activities, such as grooming may carry over between intervals, but since our technique will be the same for each primate group, the data will be uniform. Our major materials for each observational visit will be pens, our observation sheets, a watch to keep track of the ten-minute intervals, and our eyes. On most days we will try to have a camera with us as well to document any unusual behavior. Once the data is collected from all three primate groups we will enter it into the Statview computer program and determine whether our numbers are significant or not. This program will protect our data from miscalculation errors and ensure that the results are accurate.
The primary inspiration for our experimental design was J.D. Paterson, author of Primate Behavior. This book was also an exercise workbook intended to aid in the construction of primate studies like this one. We are using PatersonÕs method of "One-zero sampling" to measure our sampling intervals during our observations. One-zero sampling is designed so that if a specific behavior occurs during the interval, it is recorded as "one," and if it does not occur, a record of "zero" is entered. This is a crucial concept to our observations because we are quantifying the number of touches and physical interactions among the primates, and if they are carried on for an extensive amount of time, for example in the case of Japanese Macaque huddling, we would have no way of noting the continuation.
Another of PatersonÕs suggestions we used was for the design of our observation chart. He placed a sample chart in his book that was a great inspiration to us, as it included multiple study groups, and many different observed traits that were divided into segments based on the nature of the contact. Our observation chart contains the general guidelines for our observations at the zoo and the child development center. The list on the left-hand side are the behaviors that we will be specifically looking for during our observations, and the row along the top indicates where we will mark whether the behavioral interaction was between a male and another male, a male and a female, or a female and another female. The list on the left-hand side is divided into three different categories classifying the nature of the physical contact. The two different male to female options allow specification as to which sex was the instigator of the contact, and which was the receiver. We made the observation chart as appropriate as possible for our observations of both the human and nonhuman primates so that the results would be as regulated as possible, however some of the behaviors will most likely not be applicable for each and every primate. The bottom of the page has space for additional observations in case we note something that is not on the behavior list, or just if we feel the need to expand on another observation. At the top of each page we will note which primate group we are observing, the time of day, and the current weather conditions. The observation chart will draw attention to unusual behaviors, and promote regularity in our observations among primate groups.
The final way J.D. Paterson inspired our presentation was in his "fixed format schedules." "The planning of such a schedule (fixed format) must take into allowance such factors as the climatic conditions, the availability of the subjects, and the requirements of the research design." (Paterson p. 26) On a warm day for example, if the sun is out, the primates might behave differently or be more prone to one type of physical interaction than if it were cold and rainy outside. By including temperature, weather conditions, and time of day, we can ensure unbiased results, because we will know the circumstances of each incriminating factor.
Timeline for Research:
The expected dates for our visits to the zoo are as follows: April 4th, 10th, and 17th. We will hold our observations between the hours of noon and four p.m., spending two hours at each primate habitat. Hours spent at the child development center on Western drive are scheduled April 5th Ð April 8th. We will spend a total of six hours with each primate group. We plan to meet as a team at least a few times during the week even when we are not doing our observations to review our data and begin trying to make sense of it all. Once our observations are completed we will analyze our data and plug it in to statview to determine whether our results are significant or not. We will then include graphs, charts, and further discussion and interpretations of our conclusions with the final report.
IV. Results
Results will be included with final report.
V. Discussion & Conclusions
Discussion & Conclusions will be included with final report.

VI. Literature Cited
Book and Journal References:

"Animals Exhibited: The Zoo." Animals in human histories : the mirror of nature and culture. Rochester, N.Y.: University of Rochester Press, 2002.
This overview of science, society, and animal nature at the zoo assists our understanding of habitat construction and provides us with clues as to the behavioral adaptations of the animals.

Asquith, Pamela J. and Linda M. Fedigan. The Monkeys of Arashiyama. State University of New York Press, 1991.
This book explores social dominance of the Arashiyama Japanese Macaques in both Kyoto, Japan and in Texas. The chapter on interacting effect of age and rank on sociability, applies to a question we will be examining through our observations about ranking order and dominance based on age, and the following chapter on grooming relationships is exactly what we are looking for in terms of social behaviors and touch.

Blake, Joanna. Routes to Child Language. Cambridge University Press, 2000.
Vocalizations among the nonhuman primates are communicative in nature, but there are many different types of calls, and not all are necessarily made with the intention of influencing the action of others. Blake incorporates Jane GoodallÕs mappings of chimpanzee calls, and FosseyÕs categorizations of mountain gorilla calls according to associated situations, onto emotional meanings based on hoots, growls, barks, etc. Though we will not know for certain the emotions behind the vocalizations of the primates we observe, this background information will be able to give us a better idea.

Collinge, Nancy E., Introduction to Primate Behavior. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, 1993.
Collinge takes a step back and answers questions of why we study primates to begin with and how it reflects on human primates, including, "Éthe study of nonhuman primates as reflections of the lifeway patterns of early human society," (p. 3). She also discusses bonobos in particular and how their "human-like behaviors have almost replaced the common chimpanzee as the best model for early ape-like hominidÉ," (p. 111). In this way we can justify our study of primates as it can be used to shed light on certain aspects of early development, the nature of social evolution, as well as human nature.

Erwin, J., Captivity and Behavior: Primates in Breeding Colonies, Laboratories, and Zoos. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1979.
A comprehensive guide to expectations from the zoo environment, this work may not be a direct influence on our methods, but the information we find here will certainly be considered. This tells use what the nonhuman primates need to function on a normal level as far as space requirements, both wide and tall (p. 246-247), as well as what kind of abnormal behaviors to look for, bizarre postures and self-biting (p. 6).

Fedigan, Linda Marie. Primate Paradigms: Sex Roles and Social Bonds. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1992.
Sex-roles in primate groups are an important piece of background information for a part of our study. This work is especially important as it uses the Japanese Macaques as an example of an interesting case of hierarchy (p. 222), as well as outlines factors of behavior and situation to be observed (p. 216).

Freedman, Daniel G., Donald R. Omark, and F. F. Strayer. Dominance Relations: An Ethological View of Human Conflict and Social Interaction. New York: Garland STPM Press, 1980.
This book not only discusses social dominance applicable to both nonhuman primates and human primates, but it also contains lists of behaviors defining dominance relationships in preschool children and communally reared children. These lists helped us set up our observation chart for the observations at the child development center, as well as gives us a few things to compare among the children and the nonhuman primates we will be observing at the zoo.

Goodall, Jane. "Bridging the Gap." Through a Window: My Thirty Years with the Chimpanzees of Gombe. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1990.
This section of Jane GoodallÕs book is devoted to the similarities in chimpanzee and human behavior, sensibilities and emotions. By applying principles from this section, we will be able to illustrate and map out the connections from the primate behavior we observe and the human behavior we recognize.

Hinde, Robert. Primate Social Relationships: An Integrated Approach. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1983.
Sampling techniques for observation are discussed (p.14) and encourage the utilization of repeated visits over time, similar to what our group has decided to apply. There is also some historical background provided on studies done on grooming, (p. 182). The important thing our group is committed to keeping in mind is that the studies discussed in this book were mostly performed outside of captivity. However, we believe that many aspects of the study procedures will still apply.

Holloway, Ralph L. Primate Aggression, Territoriality, and Xenophobia. New York: Academic Press, 1974.
This book explores aggressive behaviors, and even ventures into dominance on the gender level. It also contains a list of observed behavior units that contributed to the construction of our observation chart for zoo observations.

"How Primates Have Been Domesticated and Used." Monkeyshines & the Primates: The Study of Primatology 2001: 2.
This article specifically addresses the domestication of "wild" species through selective breeding and genetic alteration. Though the article focuses on drug and chemical testing and captive breeding programs, it still supplies information on domestic vs. "wild" animals.

"How Zoos Are Designed And Operated." Monkeyshines & the Primates: The Study of
Primatology 2001: 3.
This source illustrates the considerations that zoos must take into account when they introduce an animal into its new zoo environment. The environment influences the behavior of the animals, so it must appear as natural as possible in order for primate behavior to remain as normal as possible. Zoo staff members prepare a false environment that contains the necessary building materials for nests, proper nutrition, and a natural looking environment. Despite the attempt at an authentic habitat, the environment is created, and the primatesÕ behaviors will be automatically modified.

Kano, Takayoshi. The Last Ape: Pygmy Chimpanzee Behavior and Ecology. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992.
Although this book does not focus on the particular primate groups we have chosen, it is important to note the classifications of chimpanzee interaction that Kano uses in presenting his information. We have particularly chosen to model his quantify of social interactions according to "male-male," "female-female," etc., (p. 190).

Lewin, Roger and Sue Savage-Rumbaugh. Kanzi: The Ape at the Brink of the Human Mind. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1994.
We are using this book for its chapter on bonobos, the second group of non-human primates that we will be observing at the Cincinnati zoo. Bonobos (pygmy chimps), are more humanlike than common chimps in many ways, including being more vocal and more communicative and having extremely expressive humanlike faces. One of the authors performed a study on the social and communicative behaviors of two females and one male, and the following two chapters are all about the study and his findings.

Noback, Charles R., Sensory Systems of Primates. New York and London: Plenum Press, 1978.
We will be observing vocal communications (p. 93) in both human and nonhuman primates, understanding that these non-physical interactions can also show dominance or promote understanding.

Paterson, J.D. Primate Behavior: An Exercise Workbook, second edition. Waveland Press, Inc., 2001
This is a vital over-view of methods, equations, and practices for observation when dealing with our primate relatives. PatersonÕs suggestions, as well as model charts (p. 222), apply to many diverse possibilities in primate study.

Pavelka, Mary McDonald. Monkeys of the Mesquite: The Social Life of the South Texas Snow Monkey. Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, 1993.
This book is specifically dedicated to the Arashiyama West colony of Japanese Macaques in south Texas. It provides a lot of information about kinship, dominance, personality, conflict, and sex characteristics among these monkeys we will be observing at the zoo. Sections such as "Japanese Monkey Social Organisation" will guide us in our observations and help us to understand behaviors within the population.

"Primate Habitat and Behavior." Monkeyshines & the Primates: The Study of
Primatology 2001: 3.
Primates occupy a wide range of habitats, and exhibit many qualities of social behavior, which enable them to adapt to their environment. This source is valuable to our research because it explores the complex social relationships of primates and their varying habitats.

Richard, Alison F. Primates in Nature. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 1985.
This work provides some interesting background information on Japanese Macaques and their historical population growth, (p. 251-252), diet (182-183), and behavior (361-371).

Savage-Rumbaugh, Sue, Stuart G. Shaker, and Talbot J. Taylor. Apes, Language, and the Human Mind. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
This author has been studying and working with a number of primates for more than twenty years. Her most recent work has been with a bonobo named Kanzi, who has been shown to have acquired impressive linguistic and cognitive skills since Savage-Rumbaugh first began working with him. Some of the information on communication and social construction among bonobos will be helpful in our observations of the bonobos.

Williams, Jean Balch. Field study techniques for nonhuman primates : a bibliography. Seattle: Primate Information Center, Regional Primate Research Center, University of Washington, 1991.
This section is very important to our research, because in order to compare and contrast our domestic primates to those in the "wild", we must first know a little about how to study and make authentic observations.

Website References:
"The Human Primate." N.pag. On-line. Internet. 3 Mar. 2005. Available WWW: http://www-personal.umich.edu/~phyl/anthro/human.html
This gives us some further insight into philosophies behind selection of primate studies, "There have been a few ideas about how to choose the species you're going to get your information from- one is that you should look at primates who live in similar conditions to our ancestors- savannah baboons are a good example of this. Other people thought you should look at the most closely related species- chimps or some of the other great apes." We believe that bonobos and Japanese Macaques, according to their peaceful physical interactions may provide an interesting comparison to human subjects.
Jacobs, James Q. "A Comparison of Some Similar Chimpanzee and Human Behaviors." Paleoanthropology in the 1990Õs. n.pag. On-line. Internet. 15 Feb. 2005. Available WWW: http://www.jqjacobs.net/anthro/paleo/primates.html
More evidence of our close relation to bonobos is evident in that, "Females are in a sexually attractively state most of the time, and almost continuously sexually active." This sets us apart from most other species.

Poje, Heather Bond, C. Phil. "The Ontogeny of Culture and Cognition in Primates: Evolutionary Perspectives." N.pag. On-line. Internet. 3 Mar. 2005. Available WWW: http://weber.ucsd.edu/~hpoje/hbp_info.htm
Poje points out some of the major issues around which our study is based, "In humans and other primates, there is a dynamic relationship between culture and cognition: while emerging cognitive skills lay the foundation for cultural learning, social interaction and culture simultaneously serve to shape cognitive development." We hope that this tie between cultural influences and social interaction will be evident in our observations.

Waal, Frans B. M. de. "Bonobo Sex and Society: The behavior of a close relative challenges assumptions about male supremacy in human evolution" (Originally published in the March 1995 issue of Scientific American, pp. 82-88) n.pag. On-line. Internet. 3 Mar. 2005. Available WWW: http://songweaver.com/info/bonobos.html.
In this article, Waal uses the bonobos to show that, "Male-biased evolutionary scenarios-- Man the Hunter, Man the Toolmaker and so on--are being challenged by the discovery that females play a central, perhaps even dominant, role in the social life of one of our nearest relatives."

Wrangham, Richard and Amy Parish. Evolution: "Why Sex?" 2001. n.pag. On-line. Internet. 3 Mar. 2005. Available WWW: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/07/3/l_073_03.html
We thought this was an interesting video, not only because it was a different format than our other sources, but because it compares bonobos to chimpanzees, not based on anatomy, but on social norms.

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