This topic submitted by Willis Okech, Justin Hendy, Bryan Glosik ( okechowm@muohio.edu ) on 3/10/05. [ Human Nature Team: Willis Okech, Justin Hendy, Bryan Glosik-Section: Cummins/Wolfe]

Why Do Humans View Themselves as Superior to Nature?

Introduction:
Purpose:
Generally whenever humans and animals are brought into the same context humans have been known to separate themselves as superior over animals. A way of separating ourselves from animals is to believe that humans are not animals. Animals belong to the wilderness; to be in the wilderness is to be in a lonely and dangerous place. Is this belief found in humans from culture and religion or is it more genetically related? Religion especially Judeo-Christian beliefs teach us that humans are above nature. This belief leads humans to claim dominance over animals and as such subdue any animals such as predators that threaten our existence. Culture brings people up in an environment that is separated from nature and is dependent upon using natural resources. This lifestyle leads humans towards using and exploiting nature to their own benefit with a lack of respect for nature.
The study will look at how humans view themselves as being superior towards nature both historically and across cultures.

Hypothesis:
Throughout the history of humans and across various cultures, humans have generally viewed themselves as superior over nature and animals. This can be shown through their treatment of nature and animals across history. Examining various aspects of religious cultures will show if there is a correlation between positive religious views towards nature and good stewardship toward the land. If it can be shown that all cultures regardless of religious beliefs show some form of practicing environmental degradation, than some other factor is the cause of this practice. (Forum)
Another aspect to be examined is if class has an effect on environmental views. Examining different classes will help to show if environmental degradation practices correlate with a wealthier or poorer class (Van Liere et al, 1980).
Looking at level of education, especially literacy, of individuals can show that there is little or no correlation between environmental degradation practices and higher education. Looking historically at the views towards nature of the "more educated" cultures such as the European Immigrants verses the Native Americans can show this. (Cronon et al, 2003)
If all of these aspects examined above; religion, class, education, all show no correlation with environmental views then it can be said that the human view of superiority over nature is an innate characteristic of human nature.
The survey of Miami students will show that they have a strong feeling for superiority over nature and animals. This survey will better help to understand where peopleÕs beliefs of superiority over nature are originated. The results of this survey will help to show whether these beliefs come from education, religion, class.

Fundamental Issue of Human Nature:
If it can be proved that humans have viewed themselves as superior to nature both across cultures and over history then it can be said that this view is part of our human nature. If it can be shown why humans view themselves as superior towards nature then it can also be shown what makes a good connection between humans and nature.

What Is Planned to be Accomplished:
We are trying to accomplish figuring out what makes humans so degrading towards nature. If this view of superiority of humans over nature can be better understood then it could be better possible to overcome this view of superiority. Only by overcoming this view can humans begin to live more as stewards towards nature.

Relevance towards course:
Our study will focus more on the issues of religion, class, and education. Sociobiology would argue that none of these three aspects really matter as it is all just genes and if humans view themselves as superiors towards nature it is because humans need to use nature in order to further promote the spreading of their genes. Our study is focused on looking at this superiority viewpoint as something that is learned through religion, education, or class and is not inherent in the genes like sociobiology would argue.

Relevance of Research Question:
Literature Review: Place Research in Context of the Literature:

Journal References:

Cronon, William . Changes in the Land: Indians Colonialists, and the Ecology of New England. Revised 1st Edition ed. New York: Hill and Wang, 2003.
The book looks at the different views that existed between the European immigrants and some of the Native American Indians. The author tries to answer the question whether Native Americans were conservationists or not and also draws from attitudes, class etc.

Davis H. Shelton ed. Indigenous Views of Land and the Environment.
Washington D.C.: World Bank, 1993. 1225-108
Offers an environmental view for various indigenous people. Showing how indigenous people interact and treat nature in a less degrading way even though they have much less education in terms of literacy then modern day Americans.

Dolins, Francine L. Attitudes to Animals: Views in Animals Welfare. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge UP, 1999. 1-20
The book questions human views on human-animal relationships. Provides a foundation so the reader can make ethical choices about animals. Makes the argument that it can be ethical for humans to view animals on a higher level and not just as inferior to humans.

Falk, Nancy E. " Wilderness and Kingship in Ancient South Asia." History of Religions 13.1 (1973): 1-15.
This article looks at the view of wilderness in ancient India; it also ties in with the idea of class in relation to wilderness. "Conquest of the wilderness was a Royal Ordeal," before a kingdom was established the king-to-be would have to first subdue the wilderness. This article also shows that other cultures and not just Christian based cultures seemed to view the wilderness as a dangerous place.

Friedman, Batya, and Peter H. Kahn. "Along the Rio Negro: Brazilian Children's
Environmental Views and Values." Developmental Psychology 32 (1996): 976-98
Shows a striking similarity in environmental values between Brazilian children and African American urban children in the United States. Helps to show the connection of environmental views across cultures and across different educational levels.

Guth, James L., Green, John C., Kellstedt Leyman A., Smidt, Corwin E. (1995) "Faith and the Environment: Religious Beliefs and attitudes on Environmental Policy." American Journal of Political Science, 39 (2), 356-382.
This article shows conservative eschatology, religious commitment, and religious tradition all have strong associations with environmentalism. This is a contrasting view to the more common view that conservatives and more catholic religious people do not have a strong association with environmentalism.

Hunter, Lori M., Toney, Michael B. (2005) "Religion and Attitudes Toward the Environment: A Comparison of Mormons and the General U.S. Population." The Social Science Journal, 42, 25-38.
The article gives both anti and pro environmentalism viewpoints of the Christian religion of Mormons. Mormons typically express less willingness to participate in environmental activism. This view held by Mormons can be linked to there religious views.

Norgaard, Richard B. (2002). "Can Science and Religion Better Save Nature Together?" Bioscience, 52 (9), 842-846.
Explains how scientists and theologians are joining forces to help rationalize the need to practice environmentalism. To show that religion can be pro-environment and that humans donÕt have to dominate nature but can instead live in a more sustainable way.

Refinetti, R (1990). The Real Issue with Antivivisection controversy. Science, Technology and Human Values, 15(1), 122-123.
This article deals with our perception of animals. It looks at how even though we consider ourselves superior, and have equal rights humans have histories of slavery, apartheid etc. We are quick to research on issues pertaining to human diseases for example using animals since it is unethical in human nature to use human beings for such research.

Smith, B.K (1991). Classifying Animals and Humans in Ancient India. Man New Series, 26(3), 527-548.
Smith links human perception of animals in human culture whereby depending on what the animal qualities was then different classes (low or high) of the people would be associated with respective animals. This article touches on the general hypothesis of our research; if there are animals we compare ourselves to then we are equals.

Van Liere, Kent D., and Riley E. Dunlap. "The Social Bases of Environmental Concern: A Review of Hypotheses, Explanations and Empirical Evidence." The Public Opinion Quarterly 44.2 (1980): 181-197.
This article looks at the influence of social class on views of the wilderness. The authors review 5 hypotheses based on age, social class, residence, political, and sex/gender. This article will provide and insight on what past research has found relating our social status and views of the environment.

Williams, George H. "The Wilderness and Paradise in the History of the Church." Church History 28.13 (1959): 3-24.
The authors quote from some of the biblical verses and readings, which had a negative view of the wilderness as a place of evil. "The Israelites were freed from bondage in EgyptÉ. for forty years they were lost in the wilderness before they reached the Promised Land." Jesus too was in the wilderness for forty days where on three occasions Satan tempted him. Such teachings may be the root cause of the predominantly Christian immigrants in America regarding the "howling wilderness" as a negative place that deserved to be tamed.

Website References:

Foley, Leanord. Saint Francis of Assisi: Who Was Saint Francis? 2005. http://www.americancatholic.org/features/francis/who_was.asp This article gives a catholic saint who does not dominate nature but instead sees himself as a part of nature. This shows another side of Catholicism, which most people take to be a nature dominating religion that promotes negative environmental practices.

Forum on Religion and Ecology. The Harvard University Center for the environment.
http://environment.harvard.edu/religion/main.html
This website has various articles with various authors discussing many different religions and how they each view ecology and environmental practices. This is paramount to showing the core beliefs of many religions and helps to understan where their environmental viewpoints are originating.

Four Environmental Viewpoints. Villanova College. 17 Feb. 2005
http://www.vnc.qld.edu.au/enviro/envch2s1.htm
Discusses four human based environmental viewpoints. Showing different viewpoints with different outlooks on environmental practices. This idea helps to show where different viewpoints on environmentalism originate.

Menashi, Steven. Humans, Animals, and the Human Animal. 17 Feb. 2005
http://www.policyreview.org/feb03/menashi.html
It exposed human individuals who believe that there is an absolute equality among humans and animals. This idea is of people who practice sound environmentalism. Looking at these people to better understand where they come from and why they hold this view will help to better understand people who do not hold this view of human superiority over nature.

Stringer, Dr. Phil. Environism: The Environmental Movement as a Pagan Religion. 17 Feb. 2005 http://usiap.org/viewpoints/culture/paganism/environism/paganreligion.html
Argues that environmentalism is a pagan godless movement. Shows an example of how some people view nature and the environment as insignificant to humans based on religious beliefs.

How Does Research Relate to the Larger Question:
Gathering together historic and cultural data regarding different classes, education levels, and religious beliefs will be used to better understand if humans' view of superiority is part of human nature or if it is simply imposed on us through one of these social means. A lot of data exists on historic views and cultural views in these three areas, but our study will act to put all of this data together to answer our specific questions and to show where the human view of superiority over nature originates. If humans are able to better understand why they view nature as something inferior to humans then they can better understand how to overcome this belief and to instate more sustainable environmental practices.
However, if it is simply human nature for humans to view themselves as superior to nature and animals then it will be necessary somehow to convince humans to overcome their inherent nature and to respect animals and nature. These viewpoints by humans are a basis for the degradation of nature. These viewpoints must first be overcome if humans are to not degrade nature. It is the purpose of our study to help break down this viewpoint and to put humans on a more equal level with nature and animals which will promote a more sustainable way of life for humans.

Interdisciplinary Approach:
Religious beliefs of different cultures will be examined to show similarities or differences in what is preached and what is practiced. This will be looked at across different cultures to figure out if these views of superiority over nature are held constant across different cultures and across history. Differences in class views and practices towards nature will be examined to show if there is any difference between different classes. The education of various cultures will also be examined to see if education has any effect upon how people view and treat nature.

Specific Research Design:
This study will focus on using research as the focal point of the study. A survey will also be used to add an experimental aspect to the study. This part of the study will help to prove the point that humans do in fact view themselves as superior to animals. Going further than this it will help to point out what the cause of this viewpoint is. Weather it is from religion, education, or class.
The research part of our study will focus on answering the questions of, ÔWhy do humans view themselves as superior to nature and animals?Õ
On the issue of humans' view towards nature and animals will focus on the areas of education, religion, and class. The first idea is of how humans have viewed nature and animals from cultures with different education levels. The second idea is of how humans have treated nature and animals historically and across cultures with different religious beliefs. The last idea is of how humans have viewed and treated nature across different class levels. These ideas are being examined to see which one or ones are the cause of why humans view themselves as superior towards nature.
This view held by humans will be examined through research to see if it holds true across cultures and throughout history. If this view of human superiority holds true across cultures and throughout history then it could be said that this view is an aspect of human nature. If this view doesn't hold true for all humans then it could be said that this view is constructed by one of the aspects we are studying, religion, class, and education.
On top of our research we will be conducting a survey to ascertain how Miami students view themselves in relation to nature, and animals. This survey will focus on finding out if it is a general consensus that humans feel superior over nature. Once this consensus is established it can then be determined where this view of superiority comes from.

Materials and Methods:
A survey will be given out to a large sample of Miami students. This will be completed upon further consultation. Our team will work together by being supportive of each other while constant interaction is a must.
The statistics part of our research has not been finalized yet. However, percentages will most likely be used in some form. The actually survey questions are still in the process of being formed.
Research Timeline in the 7 weeks left.
Weeks 1&2: Read and evaluate our literature.
Weeks 3&4: Carry out Survey. Synthesize data and research.
Weeks 5&6: Write report.

Next Article
Previous Article
Return to the Topic Menu