Study of Social Behaviors of Human and Nonhuman Primate Groups

This topic submitted by Katy Workman and Michelle Brasseur ( brassemr@muohio.edu ) on 3/11/05. [ Human Nature Team: Katy Workman and Michelle Brasseur-Section: Cummins/Wolfe]

Introduction
Question:
Which primate group, Bonobos, Japanese Macaques, or human children, will have the most frequent, most aggressive physical interactions?
Hypothesis:
We believe that the non-human primate groups, the Bonobos and Japanese Macaques, will have more frequent physical interactions than children. This is based on the human social practices of teaching children to "keep their hands to themselves." However, their physical interactions may be more violent when they do occur, as violence is often an outlet of aggression or display of dominance. Violence is also often a display of aggression for other primates, but we believe manifests itself in the form of a predictable procedure.
Fundamental Issues of Human Nature:
Questions of violence as a part of human and primate nature are involved in our study, but also, a more general prevalence of societal teachings concerning all kinds of physical interactions. We will be looking for procedures that are involved in individual interactions, including protocol for grooming among the non-human primates. We believe that these procedures among our evolutionary relatives and the interactions that are taught among children will draw us to some conclusions about societyÕs messages on physical contact.
Project Goals:
We plan to accomplish frequent observations and record patterns in all three of the primate groups. We will be looking for behaviors and protocols of dominance, including male over female, as well as dominance within each gender. We plan to develop detailed systems of recording and comparing data. We hope to draw conclusions about each groupÕs acceptability of certain kinds of physical interactions, whether they be aggressive or affectionate.
Relevance to Course:
When considering our subjects and the ways in which we plan to interact and think of them, we refer to Jane Goodall as a model. She is an amazing woman and scientist, using methods of personification to link her chimps to both herself and people in general. This not only develops an emotional attachment to the project, but strong links to the study and its implications of human nature. One of the most predominant and complex aspects of human nature with which we will be dealing is that of social norms and conformity, as specifically outlined by Aaronson. This is based on the human subjectsÕ willingness to conform to societyÕs teaching of the respect for boundaries and personal space, despite evidence that it may be in our nature to break those boundaries.
We can also see the implications of comparing humans to Japanese macaques and bonobos, "Similarity is the shadow of difference. Two things are similar by virtue of their difference from another; or different by virtue of oneÕs similarity to a third. So it is with individualsÉDifference is the shadow of similarity," (Ridley, pg. 38). We will be interested to see how shared differences from one group might draw connections between the two others, particularly between humans and bonobos. We can also see how the children we will study will support PinkerÕs arguments about the combination of nature and nurture and the problems with the blanks slate. Children are taught not to touch each other, but often act out in violent ways when they choose to go against that social norm.

Outside Sources
Literature Review

Book and Journal References:

"Animals Exhibited: The Zoo." Animals in human histories : the mirror of nature and culture. Rochester, N.Y.: University of Rochester Press, 2002.
This overview of science, society, and animal nature at the zoo assists our understanding of habitat construction and provides us with clues as to the behavioral adaptations of the animals.

Asquith, Pamela J. and Linda M. Fedigan. The Monkeys of Arashiyama. State University of New York Press, 1991.
This book explores social dominance of the Arashiyama Japanese Macaques in both Kyoto, Japan and in Texas. The chapter on interacting effect of age and rank on sociability, applies to a question we will be examining through our observations about ranking order and dominance based on age, and the following chapter on grooming relationships is exactly what we are looking for in terms of social behaviors and touch.

Blake, Joanna. Routes to Child Language. Cambridge University Press, 2000.
Vocalizations among the nonhuman primates are communicative in nature, but there are many different types of calls, and not all are necessarily made with the intention of influencing the action of others. Blake incorporates Jane GoodallÕs mappings of chimpanzee calls, and FosseyÕs categorizations of mountain gorilla calls according to associated situations, onto emotional meanings based on hoots, growls, barks, etc. Though we will not know for certain the emotions behind the vocalizations of the primates we observe, this background information will be able to give us a better idea.

Collinge, Nancy E., Introduction to Primate Behavior. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, 1993.
Collinge takes a step back and answers questions of why we study primates to begin with and how it reflects on human primates, including, "Éthe study of nonhuman primates as reflections of the lifeway patterns of early human society," (p. 3). She also discusses bonobos in particular and how their "human-like behaviors have almost replaced the common chimpanzee as the best model for early ape-like hominidÉ," (p. 111). In this way we can justify our study of primates as it can be used to shed light on certain aspects of early development, the nature of social evolution, as well as human nature.

Erwin, J., Captivity and Behavior: Primates in Breeding Colonies, Laboratories, and Zoos. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1979.
A comprehensive guide to expectations from the zoo environment, this work may not be a direct influence on our methods, but the information we find here will certainly be considered. This tells use what the nonhuman primates need to function on a normal level as far as space requirements, both wide and tall (p. 246-247), as well as what kind of abnormal behaviors to look for, bizarre postures and self-biting (p. 6).

Fedigan, Linda Marie. Primate Paradigms: Sex Roles and Social Bonds. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1992.
Sex-roles in primate groups are an important piece of background information for a part of our study. This work is especially important as it uses the Japanese Macaques as an example of an interesting case of hierarchy (p. 222), as well as outlines factors of behavior and situation to be observed (p. 216).

Freedman, Daniel G., Donald R. Omark, and F. F. Strayer. Dominance Relations: An Ethological View of Human Conflict and Social Interaction. New York: Garland STPM Press, 1980.
This book not only discusses social dominance applicable to both nonhuman primates and human primates, but it also contains lists of behaviors defining dominance relationships in preschool children and communally reared children. These lists helped us set up our observation chart for the observations at the child development center, as well as gives us a few things to compare among the children and the nonhuman primates we will be observing at the zoo.

Goodall, Jane. "Bridging the Gap." Through a Window: My Thirty Years with the Chimpanzees of Gombe. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1990.
This section of Jane GoodallÕs book is devoted to the similarities in chimpanzee and human behavior, sensibilities and emotions. By applying principles from this section, we will be able to illustrate and map out the connections from the primate behavior we observe and the human behavior we recognize.

Hinde, Robert. Primate Social Relationships: An Integrated Approach. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1983.
Sampling techniques for observation are discussed (p.14) and encourage the utilization of repeated visits over time, similar to what our group has decided to apply. There is also some historical background provided on studies done on grooming, (p. 182). The important thing our group is committed to keeping in mind is that the studies discussed in this book were mostly performed outside of captivity. However, we believe that many aspects of the study procedures will still apply.

Holloway, Ralph L. Primate Aggression, Territoriality, and Xenophobia. New York: Academic Press, 1974.
This book explores aggressive behaviors, and even ventures into dominance on the gender level. It also contains a list of observed behavior units that contributed to the construction of our observation chart for zoo observations.

"How Primates Have Been Domesticated and Used." Monkeyshines & the Primates: The Study of Primatology 2001: 2.
This article specifically addresses the domestication of "wild" species through selective breeding and genetic alteration. Though the article focuses on drug and chemical testing and captive breeding programs, it still supplies information on domestic vs. "wild" animals.

"How Zoos Are Designed And Operated." Monkeyshines & the Primates: The Study of
Primatology 2001: 3.
This source illustrates the considerations that zoos must take into account when they introduce an animal into its new zoo environment. The environment influences the behavior of the animals, so it must appear as natural as possible in order for primate behavior to remain as normal as possible. Zoo staff members prepare a false environment that contains the necessary building materials for nests, proper nutrition, and a natural looking environment. Despite the attempt at an authentic habitat, the environment is created, and the primatesÕ behaviors will be automatically modified.

Kano, Takayoshi. The Last Ape: Pygmy Chimpanzee Behavior and Ecology. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992.
Although this book does not focus on the particular primate groups we have chosen, it is important to note the classifications of chimpanzee interaction that Kano uses in presenting his information. We have particularly chosen to model his quantify of social interactions according to "male-male," "female-female," etc., (p. 190).

Lewin, Roger and Sue Savage-Rumbaugh. Kanzi: The Ape at the Brink of the Human Mind. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1994.
We are using this book for its chapter on bonobos, the second group of non-human primates that we will be observing at the Cincinnati zoo. Bonobos (pygmy chimps), are more humanlike than common chimps in many ways, including being more vocal and more communicative and having extremely expressive humanlike faces. One of the authors performed a study on the social and communicative behaviors of two females and one male, and the following two chapters are all about the study and his findings.

Noback, Charles R., Sensory Systems of Primates. New York and London: Plenum Press, 1978.
We will be observing vocal communications (p. 93) in both human and nonhuman primates, understanding that these non-physical interactions can also show dominance or promote understanding.

Paterson, J.D. Primate Behavior: An Exercise Workbook, second edition. Waveland Press, Inc., 2001
This is a vital over-view of methods, equations, and practices for observation when dealing with our primate relatives. PatersonÕs suggestions, as well as model charts (p. 222), apply to many diverse possibilities in primate study.

Pavelka, Mary McDonald. Monkeys of the Mesquite: The Social Life of the South Texas Snow Monkey. Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, 1993.
This book is specifically dedicated to the Arashiyama West colony of Japanese Macaques in south Texas. It provides a lot of information about kinship, dominance, personality, conflict, and sex characteristics among these monkeys we will be observing at the zoo. Sections such as "Japanese Monkey Social Organisation" will guide us in our observations and help us to understand behaviors within the population.

"Primate Habitat and Behavior." Monkeyshines & the Primates: The Study of
Primatology 2001: 3.
Primates occupy a wide range of habitats, and exhibit many qualities of social behavior, which enable them to adapt to their environment. This source is valuable to our research because it explores the complex social relationships of primates and their varying habitats.

Richard, Alison F. Primates in Nature. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 1985.
This work provides some interesting background information on Japanese Macaques and their historical population growth, (p. 251-252), diet (182-183), and behavior (361-371).

Savage-Rumbaugh, Sue, Stuart G. Shaker, and Talbot J. Taylor. Apes, Language, and the Human Mind. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
This author has been studying and working with a number of primates for more than twenty years. Her most recent work has been with a bonobo named Kanzi, who has been shown to have acquired impressive linguistic and cognitive skills since Savage-Rumbaugh first began working with him. Some of the information on communication and social construction among bonobos will be helpful in our observations of the bonobos.

Williams, Jean Balch. Field study techniques for nonhuman primates : a bibliography. Seattle: Primate Information Center, Regional Primate Research Center, University of Washington, 1991.
This section is very important to our research, because in order to compare and contrast our domestic primates to those in the "wild", we must first know a little about how to study and make authentic observations.

Website References:
"The Human Primate." N.pag. On-line. Internet. 3 Mar. 2005. Available WWW: http://www-personal.umich.edu/~phyl/anthro/human.html
This gives us some further insight into philosophies behind selection of primate studies, "There have been a few ideas about how to choose the species you're going to get your information from- one is that you should look at primates who live in similar conditions to our ancestors- savannah baboons are a good example of this. Other people thought you should look at the most closely related species- chimps or some of the other great apes." We believe that bonobos and Japanese Macaques, according to their peaceful physical interactions may provide an interesting comparison to human subjects.
Jacobs, James Q. "A Comparison of Some Similar Chimpanzee and Human Behaviors." Paleoanthropology in the 1990Õs. n.pag. On-line. Internet. 15 Feb. 2005. Available WWW: http://www.jqjacobs.net/anthro/paleo/primates.html
More evidence of our close relation to bonobos is evident in that, "Females are in a sexually attractively state most of the time, and almost continuously sexually active." This sets us apart from most other species.

Poje, Heather Bond, C. Phil. "The Ontogeny of Culture and Cognition in Primates: Evolutionary Perspectives." N.pag. On-line. Internet. 3 Mar. 2005. Available WWW: http://weber.ucsd.edu/~hpoje/hbp_info.htm
Poje points out some of the major issues around which our study is based, "In humans and other primates, there is a dynamic relationship between culture and cognition: while emerging cognitive skills lay the foundation for cultural learning, social interaction and culture simultaneously serve to shape cognitive development." We hope that this tie between cultural influences and social interaction will be evident in our observations.

Waal, Frans B. M. de. "Bonobo Sex and Society: The behavior of a close relative challenges assumptions about male supremacy in human evolution" (Originally published in the March 1995 issue of Scientific American, pp. 82-88) n.pag. On-line. Internet. 3 Mar. 2005. Available WWW: http://songweaver.com/info/bonobos.html.
In this article, Waal uses the bonobos to show that, "Male-biased evolutionary scenarios-- Man the Hunter, Man the Toolmaker and so on--are being challenged by the discovery that females play a central, perhaps even dominant, role in the social life of one of our nearest relatives."

Wrangham, Richard and Amy Parish. Evolution: "Why Sex?" 2001. n.pag. On-line. Internet. 3 Mar. 2005. Available WWW: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/07/3/l_073_03.html
We thought this was an interesting video, not only because it was a different format than our other sources, but because it compares bonobos to chimpanzees, not based on anatomy, but on social norms.

Larger Questions:
How would our society be different if children were not taught to respect each otherÕs spaces? Could this adversely affect male-female relationships? Adult-child relationships? Are humans more peaceful because of society? What are the real benefits of a society in which we are taught not to touch each other, but can see countless acts of violence in our media? Will there be evidence of this contradiction in the children we study?
Interdisciplinarity
The interdisciplinarity of this project lies in the nature of the subjects being studied. In our society the study of humans will always fall under anthropology or sociology, whereas the study of nonhuman primates is considered biological. We will utilize the biological and evolutionary aspects of ape nature to make inferences about human sociology, and in turn, human nature.
Research Design
Our research will be carried out through observation and careful and diverse recording of behavior. We will be recording very different kinds of behavior, both aggressive and affectionate, and between genders. We also plan to note age hierarchies and even weather affects on total number of physical interactions. However, our primary focus will be on total number of touches to draw conclusions on the physical socialization practices of different primate species.
Materials and Methods
With What:
This is an observation-based project. Once data is collected from all three primate groups the data will be entered into the statview computer program and conclusions will be made based on data that proves to be significant.
Working Together:
All group efforts on this project will be done together as a team. This will be especially helpful during observations of the Japanese macaque habitat, as it is in the form of an island which should be watched from both sides.
Which Statistics:
We plan to take into account all of our statistics, especially those that prove to be significant. Focus will primarily be on number of touches compared across primate groups, prevalence of aggressive versus affectionate interactions, and gender dominance within each primate group.
Timeline for Research:
The expected dates for our visits to the zoo are as follows: March 27th, April 3rd, 10th, and 17th. We will hold our observations between the hours of noon and four p.m., spending two hours at each primate habitat. Hours spent at the child development center on Western drive will be subject to availability, but we are tentatively aiming for March 30th, April 6th, 13th, and 20th, from the hours of 3:30 to 5 p.m. We realize that this means we will be spending significantly less time on the humans than the two other groups, but we believe this will not be a problem as we are much more familiar with human behavior. In order to insure that reliability and validity of our statistics, we will use the equation for hourly rate, "hourly rate = frequency of behavior / hours of observation," as outlined by J.D. Paterson on page 56 of Primate Behavior: an Exercise Workbook.
The Observation Chart:
The following chart contains the general guidelines for our observations at the zoo and the child development center. The list on the left-hand side are the behaviors that we will be specifically looking for during our observations, and the row along the top indicates where we will mark whether the behavioral interaction was between a male and another male, a male and a female, or a female and another female. The two different male to female options allow specification as to which sex was the instigator of the contact, and which was the receiver. We made the observation chart as appropriate as possible for our observations of both the human and nonhuman primates so that the results would be as regulated as possible, however some of the behaviors will most likely not be applicable for each and every primate. The bottom of the page has space for additional observations in case we note something that is not on the behavior list, or just if we feel the need to expand on another observation. At the top of each page we will note which primate group we are observing, the time of day, and the current weather conditions. The observation chart will draw attention to unusual behaviors, and promote regularity in our observations among primate groups.