Draft 1 of Final: Does Stability in life provide Comfort in Death? . . .

This topic submitted by Amelia Huerta, Martin Yip ( huertaai@muohio.edu ) on 4/3/06. [ Human Nature Team: Amelia Huerta, Martin Yip-Section: Myers/Fischer]

Amelia Huerta
Martin Yip
Project Draft
WCP 262
4.3.2006

Does Stability in Life provide Comfort in Death?
A study of religious stability and death anxiety

Introduction:
Death is inevitable and every person may have a unique perception and reaction toward it. And, humans grapple with uncertainties every day. People deal with this by trying to gain knowledge and find truth in their lives in various ways. Science is a prime example of how humans try to explain things and rid their perception of the world of its uncertainties. Religion can also function to diminish uncertainty for some individuals. Biblical texts, for example, provide explanations for many of the unknowns in the world. But there are some things we can almost never be certain of. One such thing is what happens after we die; death will forever be a mystery. Understanding how people deal with the uncertainty of death may tell us a lot about how humans perceive uncertainties in general, and may help to explain why people are so concerned with finding explanations for the unknown.
Our study aims to find out the possible relationship between a personÕs stability of their religious views (either theist or non-theist) and their intensity of fear of death. Stability of religious view is the conviction and unwavering someone feels in their position, regardless of the nature of that view (either theistic or non-theistic). This involves the likelihood that someone will hold on to their position regardless of doubts they may feel about their position/ confronting objections to their beliefs. Fear of death is the negative emotional and psychological impacts thoughts of death create in an individual. Our definition of fear of death is consisted of six main parts. These include fear of: the unknown, loss of physical self, loss of identity/inner-being, pain/suffering, loneliness/separation and punishment. We hypothesize that people who have more stable religious views will be less likely to experience intense fear of death than those who experience less stability in their religious views. We also hypothesize that of those who have stable religious views, those whose views are theistic will experience less death anxiety than those whose views are non-theistic.

Literature Review:
Divided into discussion of relevant topics:
Religion
There are many ways to conceptualize religiosity. It is important to understand different ideas people have about what it means to be religious or to have religious faith. We are comparing differing religiosity and stability of those religious views with that personÕs fear of death. Different conceptions of religiosity would cause us to measure different things in our test subjects. For the purposes of our study, we have decided to categorize people who have religious faith as anyone who believes in a Christian conception of God. We have decided, after so much research on religiosity, that we would simply categorize people into groups of either ÒtheistsÓ or Ònon-theistsÓ. A theist is someone who believes in the existence of a god or gods and a non-theist is someone who doesnÕt. We understand that there are many people who waver between belief in god and lack of belief in god. But this is not a drawback to our study. In fact, this wavering and instability of theistic beliefs is one of the main focuses of our study. There have been many studies performed which aim to find correlations between religiosity and fear of death. However, our study is focused on the stability people experience with their theistic or lack or theistic beliefs. This does not mean that we should dismiss the broad range of conceptions of religiosity. What follows is an overview of our major findings of what various conceptions of religion entail.
Some studies separate religious belief from religious practice. Others have performed research using the distinction between extrinsic and intrinsic orientation. These orientations are distinct from the common conception of religiosity by focusing on peopleÕs motivations toward religion (C. Markstrom-Adams & M. Smith). One study defined extrinsic religious orientation as Òthe tendency to engage in religious activities as a means to other ends, usually desired social or emotional consequencesÓ and intrinsic religious orientation as Òthe degree to which individuals engage in religious activities as ends in themselvesÓ (J. L. Swanson & K. R. Byrd). In other words, intrinsic religious orientation is based on an internalized creed and efforts to live by oneÕs principles. Whereas extrinsic religious orientation is characterized by self-serving motives and securing personal and selfish interests and needs (C. Markstrom-Adams & M. Smith).
Other concerns about defining religiosity involve distinctions between institutionalized religious practices versus religious belief without regard to practice versus rituals that are practices without regard to institutionalized religion. Some of these general concerns are addressed by the extrinsic and intrinsic religious orientation scales but even this conception of religious orientation doesnÕt seem to directly address the problem of distinguishing practice from belief and institutionalized from non-institutionalized beliefs.
Klass has another idea of what religion involves. He defines religion as a process: ÒEvery culture has some process among its members, and between them and the world, that helps to order their society and provides them with meaning, unity, peace of mind, and the degree of control over events they believe in possibleÓ (Klass 1995:38). This definition doesnÕt even involve the necessity for a supernatural force such as a god or gods. This is contrary to how religion is typically viewed in western culture which seems to assume the necessity of a god or gods in any religious structure.
Anthropologist Clifford Geertz says that many try to give religion a universal definition but that this does not seem to work. Some think that religion is the belief in personal deities. However, some there are some religions, such as Hinayana Buddhism, in which beliefs in personal deities play no role at all. Others think that religion is a moral code. However, ÒThere are primitive societies in which there is no real connection between the ritual system, with its associated beliefs in supernatural beings, and the moral codeÓ (William Alston, 2006).
Still others define religion as a sense of harmony: Òor McTaggart, it seems clear that one could from time to time have such a sense of harmony without this being integrated into anything that we would call a religionÓ (William Alston, 2006). While other stress the importance of ultimate belief in religion: ÒDoes any "ultimate attitude" or any "vital adjustment" constitute a religion? As William James points out (The Varieties of Religious Experience, Ch. 2), it seems doubtful that a frivolous attitude toward life constitutes a religion, even if it is the fundamental attitude of a given personÓ (William Alston, 2006). Some think that the above definition inevitably neglects some important aspects of religion. Some scholars define the essence of religion instead of religion. Julian Huxley, who works with a conception of the essence of religion as a kind of feeling, says, "the essence of religion springs from man's capacity for awe and reverence, that the objects of religion É are in origin and essence those things, events, and ideas which arouse the feeling of sacredness" (Religion without Revelation, p. 111).
William Alston, in his article: Religion, defines the following characteristics of religion:
1. Belief in supernatural beings (gods).
2. A distinction between sacred and profane objects.
3. Ritual acts focused on sacred objects.
4. A moral code believed to be sanctioned by the gods.
5. Characteristically religious feelings (awe, sense of mystery, sense of guilt, adoration), which tend to be aroused in the presence of sacred objects and during the practice of ritual, and which are connected in idea with the gods.
6. Prayer and other forms of communication with gods.
7. A worldview, or a general picture of the world as a whole and the place of the individual therein. This picture contains some specification of an overall purpose or point of the world and an indication of how the individual fits into it.
8. A more or less total organization of one's life based on the worldview.
9. A social group bound together by the above.
In studying religion, William James Òhas reminded us that in every religion there is some sort of awareness of what is called divine and some sort of response to this divinity. This being the case, a very fruitful way of classifying religions is to ask in the case of each: "Where is the divine (the object of religious responses) primarily sought and located, and what sort of response is primarily made to it?" In answering these questions for a given religion, the religion-making features most stressed in that religion will also come to light. According to this principle of division, religions fall into three major groups: sacramental, prophetic, and mysticalÓ (William Alston, 2006).
¥ Sacramental religion: the divine is sought chiefly in thingsÑinanimate physical things like pieces of wood (relics of saints, statues, crosses), food and drink (bread and wine, baptismal water), living things (the totem animal of the group, the sacred cow, the sacred tree), processes (the movements of the sacred dance).
¥ Prophetic religion: the divine is thought to manifest itself primarily in human societyÑin the events of human history and in the inspired utterances of great historical figures.
¥ Mystical religion: its center is mystical experience, which at its highest development dominates the consciousness, excluding all awareness of words, nature, even of the mystic's own selfÓ (William Alston, 2006).
Other importance elements of religion include: response to deity and place of doctrine.
Although our study does not (and simply can not) incorporate all of these conceptions of religiosity and religious orientation, it is important to keep them in mind as the results of our study are discussed.

Religion. William Alston. Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Ed. Donald Borchert. Vol. 8. 2nd ed. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2006. p366-373. 10 vols.

Psychology of Religion
Psychology of religion is Òcomposed of a variety of studies that have utilized a broad spectrum of theoretical frameworks to interpret the psychological meaning and patterns of collective and individual religious contents, ideation, and practiceÓ (Parsons, 2005). There are different scholars in the field who made important contributions. Freud applied his theory of id, ego and superego to cultural products, particularly religion, in works such as Totem and Taboo (1913) and Future of an Illusion (1927). He Òwas convinced of the superiority of psychoanalysis as a secular cure of soulsÓ (Parson, 2005). To that end, ÒFreud proclaimed religion to be a historical vestige, a collective universal obsessional neurosis whose various accoutrements were composed of projected, regressive, and defense Oedipal and related unconscious elementsÓ (Parson, 2005). His analysis deeply influenced subsequent ego-psychological and object-relational approaches. Freud speculated about the primitive manÕs dependence on the father to lower the fear of death. Since his contributions, investigators have stressed the primary roles of introjection and unconscious communication in religious worship and dogma. (McCarthy, p.101)
Jung, who was known as the founder of analytical psychology, related concepts of the collective unconscious and individuation. Beneath Freud's personal unconscious, thought Jung, Òlay a collective unconscious housing universal archetypes, conceived of as forms (without specific content) known only by their cultural and religious expressions and effects on the individual psycheÓ (Parson, 2005). The task of psychological growth, which Jung termed individuation, Òwas to acknowledge and therapeutically work through the contents of the personal and collective unconscious, gradually heightening the feeling of wholeness, harmony, and the totality of the self (Parson, 2005).
G. Stanley hall, a North American scholar, was interested in religious conversion, growth, mysticism, and education. He argued that psychology help mankind to actualize ethical ideals. Starbuck, following his work, centered on the relation between adolescents and conversion (parsons, 2005). William James, the author of the classic work The Varieties of Religious experience (1902), Òproclaimed experience to as more primary than religious dogma, theology, or church accoutrementsÓ(Parsons, 2005). James adopted the descriptive, phenomenological method and compiled the most diverse, substantial, and compelling anthology of person religious experience of his day. James also offered typologies such as the sick soul, the healthy-minded, and the divided self, as well as parameters for understanding religious phenomena such as mysticism and conversion (Parsons, 2005). Erikson, the best known ego psychologist in his era analyzed Martin Luther and Gandhi to show Òshow how ego psychology could illuminate the healing, transformative power of religionÓ (Parson, 2005).
Gordon Allport, who specialized in Humanistic, phenomenological, and existential psychology, distinguished intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientation. He concluded that individuals in the former treated religion as an end in itself, while individuals in the latter treated religion as a means, often exhibiting egoist, wish-fulfilling forms of behavior (Parson, 2005). Some scholars in the empirical and behavior studies further developed empirical studies, utilizing AllportÕs intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientations. Examples include:
¥ The Quest Scale (a more nuanced view of intrinsic forms of religious orientation);
¥ Religious Viewpoints Scale (which distinguishes between committed [personal religious style] and consensual [socially generated forms] of religiousness);
¥ General attribution theory (which links religion with matters of self-esteem, meaning, and control);
¥ Attachment theory (which examines the strong relational bonds religion fosters);
¥ Coping theory (which seeks to analyze religion as a means of coping with the existential and social exigencies of life).
Social role theory has proved useful in analyzing how motivation, behavior, and learning proceed through identification with religious role modelsÓ (Parson, 2005). Those people with an intrinsic or humanistic type of religious attitudes who are depressed should also show a high degree fear of death. (McCarthy, p.102).
Peter Homans, a pastoral psychologist, detailed in his The Dialogue between Theology and Psychology (1968) of formulating a Òmature, psychologically sophisticated form of faith by investigating the relation between developmental determinants, existential issues (such as freedom, choice, and responsibility) and theological issues (such as faith, sin, morality, and redemption)Ó (Parson, 2005). Paul Tillich, a theologians stressed the important relationship between psychology and theology: Òpsychology was American culture's mode of formulating the central existential questions about the nature of the human condition. Any theological system, then, could not dispense with active dialogue with psychologyÓ (Parson, 2005). The current psychology has adopted a value-neutral and objective practice. A number of scholars specialized in transpersonal psychology, ÒIncluding Charles Tart, Ken Wilber, Stanislav Grof, and Michael Washburn, have utilized a variety of psychological approaches to advocate the scientific study of mystical and paranormal phenomenaÓ (Parson, 2005).

Belief and doubt
When discussing religious beliefs, doubt will always be a factor. Understanding what doubt truly is and what it implies is crucial to an understanding of religious beliefs. The very essence of what is means to doubt makes it seem like doubt would be the opposite of belief. However, the Encyclopedia of Religion says that Ò[d]oubt and skepticism are in fact inseparable from every deeply religious dispositionÓ. It says that instead of being equated with disbelief, it should be understood as a vacillation between belief and unbelief. This is because to doubt actually means to be of two minds. Doubting can be thought of as Òan attitude of mind, a philosophical method, and a necessary ingredient in or component of beliefÓ (Encyclopedia of Religion). An attitude of mind is described as Òan openness of mind sustained by an ongoing attitude of questioning.Ó A philosophical method of doubt is based on the idea that doubting oneÕs existence can make one aware of their existence. Doubt is also a component of belief as it is thought to sustain belief. So, doubting is a healthy and open-minded thing for a person of any religious faith to engage in.
The words ÔfaithÕ and ÔbeliefÕ are often used interchangeably but their meanings are actually somewhat different. Throughout the middle ages, the two words were actually equated with one another. However, today ÔfaithÕ has an ethical content by implying that the person that holds faith has courage and perseverance. A person of faith is thought to be making a significant leap beyond the highest ethical decisions of which anyone is capable (Encyclopedia of Religion). ÔBeliefÕ, on the other hand, has an intellectual connotation. Beliefs cannot be isolated as they are a part of a creedal system. Many people think that faith implies the lack of possibility for true knowledgeÑthat faith would not be necessary if knowledge could be attained. However, Òfaith yields a kind of knowledge, a gradual unfolding of awareness of God in human experience, apart from which awareness faith could not be indefinitely sustainedÓ (Encyclopedia of Religion).
The relationship between doubt and knowledge is an interesting one and worthy of exploring in order to understand what it might mean to feel that you have knowledge about your religious position. Philosophical discussions about the relationship between doubt and knowledge have mixed conclusions. While a few philosophers conclude that we can essentially know nothing beyond a few mathematical and logical truths, others disagree. The other approach to this conundrum says that doubting something does not necessarily mean that it cannot be knowledge. Hume agrees with this latter idea and says that Òall human knowledge is reducible to more or less strong beliefs.Ó The essence of knowledge is a philosophical question and will always be debated.
Along similar lines with knowledge, certainty is an interesting idea, worthy of exploration. Certainty can have several meanings. Russel outlines three distinct meanings: 1) logical of mathematical certainty, 2) epistemological certainty (certainty based on abundant evidence and 3) psychological certainty (when a person feels no doubt about a certain proposition). But it is debatable as to how much weight certainty should hold. ÒGenuinely religious persons, whatever their beliefs, are always thoroughly impressed by the mystery of faith. The tendency to explain rather than to contemplate mystery is the vice of much popular, institutional religion and has immensely contributed to the disunity of Christendom as well as to the maintenance of barriers between one religion and anotherÓ (Encyclopedia of Religion). Our study involves the aspect of stability of oneÕs theistic or non-theistic beliefs. Certainty may play into the stability of beliefs for some people.

Religion and Death
Religion was to nearly monopolize knowledge about Òdeath and the hereafter for most of human history; it was to be the institution that managed that death watch and funerary ritual, oversaw the cemetery, and structured the bereavement roles of survivorsÓ (Kearl, p.170). Religious rituals are institutionalized acts. ÒInstitutionalization involves this type of habitualization, which carries the psychic gain of minimizing doubt and narrowing the scope of possible actions. In other words, institutions allow us to ÔknowÕ things of which we have no knowledge.Ó (Kearl, p.174). Take the example of the terminally ills, religious beliefs may have little meaning until death approaches. ÒOnly then, grounded in desire of fear, do people construct a belief in a benevolent afterlife or condemnation in HellÓ (Balber, p.134). Others find that their faith and religious belief Òprovide meaning in the experience, mark the path of connection with the transcendent, and/or ensure the continuity of the selfÓ (Balber, p.134). However, some say the religion instill fear to create a sense of obedience. Religion is no longer monopolizing the knowledge of death, Òwith secularization, medical innovations, and the predominance of natural deaths in old age, religionÕs control over matters of the dying and the dead has seemingly weakenedÓ (Kearl, p.170). Religion now shares its responsibility for defining and managing death with medicine, science, and philosophy.

Fear of Death
Death challenges the meaning of life and self: ÒÔDeath asks us for our identity,Õ notes Robert Fulton. ÔConfronnted with death, we are compelled to provide in some form a response to the question, ÔWho am I?ÕÉDeath challenges the very meaning of life, or self, and social structure (1965, p.3), such as trivializing our opportunities for heroicsÓ (Kearl, p.208). An additional facet of this threat of meaningless posed by death is the possibility that oblivion is the fate of all, regardless of how one lives (Kearl, p. 209).
The third anxiety of occasioned by the prospect of death is the fear of being forgotten or ignored (Kearl, p.210). Some also fear that one has somehow no been self-fulfilled. Éincomplete (Kearl, p.211).
McCarthy also contributed to fear of death. The concepts of death anxiety and the fear of living presuppose the individualÕs unique psychology of the loss of the self (McCarthy, p.209). ÒThe suffering of the dying is augmented by the helplessness they feel in combating physical illness and in not being in control of the time and circumstance of their deathÉthe interlocking fears of separation and abandonment stand forthrightly as really significant issues in death anxiety fantasies and their relationships to depression and neurotic personality traitsÓ (McCarthy, p.33). McCarthy ties fear of death to depression. ÒDeath anxiety represents both a defense against depression and an unconscious wish for death and punishment via the egoÕs passivity in the face of threatÓ (McCarthy, p.38).

CultureÑDenying death
Pascal wrote that it Òis easier to endure death without thinking about it than the thought of death without the danger of dying.Ó We live in a society that denies death by different methods. ÒThere are two ways of not thinking about death: the way of our technological civilization, which denies death and refuses to talk about itÓ (Aries, p.22). The second way is of traditional civilizations, Òwhich is not a denial but a recognition of the impossibility of thinking about it directly or for very long because death is too close and too much a part of daily lifeÓ (Aries, p.22). ÒThrough a process of institutionalization, professionalization, and specialization, we have tended in our society to move death away from the mainstream of livingÓ (Corr, p.46). ÒAnd we are often unwilling to speak openly or directly about death, preferring to employ oblique, evasive or euphemistic language, insteadÓ (Corr, p.46). As Ernest Becker (1973) observed in his Pulizer-winning book, the Denial of Death, ÒSociety is a symbolic stage of individual actors to achieve earthly heroism, simultaneously satisfying the human need for self-esteem and providing causes so that its members need not worry about what life means or have the time to reflect on the terrors of deathÓ (Kearl, p.214).

A life-span perspective on death
The very young cannot distinguish themselves from their environment. Young children think that the dead continue to exist and influence the affairs of living. They Òperceive death as a temporary state, preceding some rebirth experience, whether it be like the arousal from sleep (Maurer 1966) the rebirth of nature as winter turns into spring (Eliade 1959), or the resurrection of the snake as it disposes of its old, dead selfÓ (Kearl, p.456). When a child start to emerge a sense of self, there arise fears of oneÕs own death and strategies for coping with themÉsome think that death comes because of the like of the bogeyman, it can be avoided by eluding the ÔDeath ManÓ (Nagy 1948). ÒAt the age of five, American children set aside their fantasy and understand what cause death. Children of the lower social classes are more likely to cite violence; whereas those of the middle class cite disease and old ageÓ (Kearl, 456).
People in early Adulthood possess a Òmind-set, as if being drunk with future time, is a feeling conditioned not only by oneÕs age but by oneÕs social class as wellÓ (Kearl, p.462). They think that they should do a lot more in the future and thus death is but an abstraction. For the American middle class, the first symptom of oneÕs own mortality often occurs after the age of thirty-five. They are most engaged with social systems, seeing their parentsÕ generation leave the world and their grandchildrenÕs generation enters it. They might also encounter Ômiddle crisisÕ, when there are the first symptoms of old age (Kearl, p.465). For the elderly, they are most likely to think about and discuss death (Kalish and Reynolds 1976) and who are least likely to be frightened by it. ÒBut the stigma of death associated with this last phase of life has transformed what should be understood as one of the greatest social accomplishmentsÓ (Kearl, p.467). They lose their independence, but it is a time for reflection and reminiscence.

Other factors that affect fear of death/death anxiety
Our hypothesis that those who feel stability in their religious position will experience less fear of death is informed by correlations other factors have with fear of death and death anxiety. A study, Intrinsic and extrinsic religiosity, belief in the afterlife, death anxiety, and life satisfaction in young Catholics and Protestants, found that life satisfaction was negatively correlated with death anxiety. In making our hypothesis, we thought that life satisfaction might be positively correlated with stability of important issues such as religious views. In addition, this study found that life satisfaction was positively correlated with belief in the afterlife. This leads to a further hypothesis that those who have theistic views that involve belief in an afterlife and are also stable in these beliefs will experience the least fear of death of any group examined in our studyÑeven less than those who have stable beliefs and do not believe in an afterlife.
Another study, Religious Orientation and Assertiveness: Relationship to Death Anxiety, found interesting correlations between assertiveness and death anxiety. It found that those who were less assertive endorsed greater death anxiety than those who were more assertive. This informed our hypothesis because we thought that someone who is more assertive might be more likely to feel assured and certain, and thus, stable in their religious views. This would mean that they would experience less fear of death than individuals who are unstable in their religious views.

Materials and Methods:
The data for this study will be collected in the form of surveys (Appendix A). The surveys will be given to approximately 100 college students at Miami University, Ohio in various settings in order to achieve as random of a sampling as possible within the limitations we must work within. The surveys will include different scales for measuring fear of death, religious views, and stability in their current religious position. People with non-Christian affiliations will be excluded from the study in order to standardize the religious variable. In addition to this information, we will collect general information about the participants including sex, year in school, major, age, and religious upbringing. Fear of death will be measured using a questionnaire that we have created that addresses six major categories of fear of death. A religiosity scale has been modified to create the scale we will use to measure religious views (theistic or non-theistic) among the participants. We have developed a scale to measure stability of oneÕs religious position. Also, open ended questions will be asked on the survey which will allow the participants to express their opinions about why they have or lack faith, and what they believe about an afterlife.
The data gathered from the surveys will allow us to divide people into four categories. These categories are based on the presence or lack of oneÕs religious (Christian) faith and the stability of oneÕs religious views. Thus, the four categories of people are as follows: (1) those with theistic religious views whoÕs views are stable, (2) those with theistic religious views whoÕs views are unstable, (3) those with non-theistic religious views whoÕs views are stable, and (4) those with non-theistic religious views whoÕs views are unstable. These categories represent our independent variables. With respect to these four groups, we will find relationships to intensity of fear of death. We will attempt to find correlations between peopleÕs intensity of fear of death and their association with one of the four groups. Using this information, we will be able to analyze further to propose factors that may influence people with both theistic and non-theistic religious views fear of death and how that is related to the stability of their religious position.
This information will all be entered into a program for statistical analysis. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests will be performed on the data using a program called SPSS which is designed to perform statistical analyses. It will show us if there is any significant correlation between factors which we can draw our conclusions from.

Results:
This section will be written after the results have been acquired.

Discussion:
This section will be written after the results have been acquired

Bibliography:
Cohen, et. al. (2005). Intrinsic and extrinsic religiosity, belief in the afterlife, death anxiety, and life satisfaction in young Catholics and Protestants. Journal of Research in Personality, 39(3), 307.

Ewin, R.E. (2002). Reasons and the Fear of Death. New York: Rowman & Litterfield,.

Harris, S. (2005). The End of Faith: Religion, Terror, and the Future of Reason. New York: Norton.

Hoelter, Jon W. (1979). Religious Correlates of Fear of Death. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 18 (4), 404.

Ingram, B. J. (1986). Death Threat, Religiosity, and Fear of Death: A Personal Construct Perspective. Thesis: Miami Universtiy, Ohio.

Kowalewski, Mark R. (1999). Amazing Conversions: Why Some Turn to Faith and Others Abandon Religion (Book). Review of Religious Research, 40(3), 279.

Kraft, William A. (1987). Religious Orientation and Assertiveness: Relationship to Death Anxiety. Journal of Social Psychology, 127(1), 93.

Lewis, C.S. (1955). Surprised By Joy: The Shape of My Early Life. New York: Harcourt

Malpas, J. & Solomon, R. (1998). Death and Philosophy. New York: Routledge.

Markstrom, Carol A. (1999). Religious involvement and adolescent psychosocial development. Journal of Adolescence, 22(2), 205.

Markstrom-Adams, Carol. (1996). Identity formation and religious orientation among high school students from the United States and Canada. Journal of Adolescence, 19(3), 247.

Nelson, L. D. (1980). Religiosity and Death anxiety: A Multi-Dimensional Analysis. Review of Religious Research, 21(2), 148.

Shermer, M. (2000). How We Believe. New York: W. H. Freeman Company.

Website Selections:
Kearl, M. (2006). Sociology of Death and Dying. Retrieved February 16, 2006 from [http://www.trinity.edu/~mkearl/death.html]

Rausch, P. (2001). UF Study: Religion DoesnÕt Directly Influence Sense Of Well-Being Or Fear Of Death In Seniors. University of Florida News. Retrieved February 16, 2006 from [http://news.ufl.edu/2001/11/20/religion/]
http://www.samharris.org/
http://www.skeptic.com/
http://www.ccci.org/

Appendix A
If this survey includes a concept that seems unclear to you, please interpret it as you see it relates best to you.

Age: _________ Sex: __________ Year in School:_____________________

Major:_______________________

What is your religious affiliation?
(ex: Christian; Protestant; Catholic; Jewish; MuslimÉetc.)
(If you donÕt have one, please indicate so) _______________________________

Why would you say you have this affiliation? (If you have none, why would you say you have none?)

How would you briefly describe your religious upbringing?

Please rate the following statements depending on how strongly you feel each one describes your own personal convictions about death.

1.) IÕm afraid of dying because I donÕt know how it will happen to me.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

2.) Not knowing what will happen after I die makes me scared and unsettled.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

3.) IÕm worried about what will happen to my body after I die.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

4.) The possibility of punishment after life affects the way I live.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

5.) IÕm scared that when I die, I might be punished by a higher power.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

6.) The idea of never experiencing the world again after I die does not bother me.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

7.) Not knowing when and how I might die does not bother me.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

8.) Not knowing what it might feel like to be dead does not bother me.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

9.) IÕm scared that I will never get to see the people I care about again once I am dead.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

10.) The idea of dying without the chance to do everything I want does not bother me.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

11.) When I think about death, IÕm most concerned about losing my physical self.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

12.) I am disturbed by the shortness of life.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

13.) The thought that my abilities might be limited while I lie dying doesnÕt bother me.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

14.) It upsets me that I might not be able to control how and when I might die.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

15.) I fear that my thoughts and ideas will be lost when I die.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

16.) I am not concerned with my familyÕs financial situation when I die.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

17.) I am fine with separating from my friends and family after I die.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

19.) The possibility of unusual physical sensations upon dying doesnÕt upset me.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

20.) When I think about death, IÕm most concerned about losing my consciousness.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

21.) I fear that the way I live my life will affect what happens during and after I die.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

22.) The total sense of isolation of dying frightens me.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

23.) The uncertainty of what will happen after I die makes me unsettled.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

24.) IÕm okay with the idea of losing my body when I die.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

25.) I worry that when I die, I will leave something important to me unfinished.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

26.) When I think about dying, IÕm most concerned about the detachment from my loved ones.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

27.) I view death as a release from my earthly sufferings.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

28.) I am fine with the sense of isolation that I might experience as I die.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

29.) I am not scared that I donÕt know what it will be like to die.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

30.) I fear that when I am dead, I will be completely alone.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

31.) I have never thought about death and dying

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

Please answer the following questions as they best relate to your religious views and/or religious practice.

1.) Which of the following statements most clearly describes your idea about a Deity?

A.) I believe in a personal God.

B.) I believe in a God who is not a personal God

C.) I donÕt believe in any God.

D.) I am not sure what I believe.

2.) Do you pray? (circle one) Yes No
If yes, explain why and how you pray in the space provided here:

3.) How often, if ever, do you pray?
a.) never
b.) less than one time per month
c.) 2-3 times per month
d.) once per week
e.) 3-5 times per week
f.) 1 time per day
g.) more than 1 time per day

4.) What circumstances do you pray under? (choose all that apply)
a.) I never pray
b.) In times of crisis
c.) When I feel lonely
d.) When I need guidance
e.) When I want to thank God
f.) Before meals
g.) Routinely even if there is nothing I need help with
h.) During formal worship services

16) All religions stress that belief normally includes some experience of ÒunionÓ with the divine. Are there particular moments when you feel ÔcloseÕ to the divine?
1) Frequently
2) Occasionally
3) Rarely
4) Never

17) Religion offers a sense of security in the face of death which is not otherwise possible.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

18) Religion provides the individual with an interpretation of his existence which could not be discovered by reason alone.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

20.) Do you believe you will have an afterlife? (circle one) Yes No

If yes, explain what kind of afterlife in the space provided here:

21.) How do you feel your religious views affect your ideas about death?

22.) My religious views have been stable throughout my life so far.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree
23.) My religious views have been unstable lately.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

24.) My religious views are unlikely to change in the future.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

25.) My religious convictions are easily thrown into doubt.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

26.) I know that my religious views are based in the truth.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

27.) What might cause you to doubt and/or potentially change your religious views?

28.) To you, what does it mean to doubt religious views?

29.) What do you do in response to doubts you might experience about your religious views?

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