Draft 2: The Nature of Judgment Proposal

This topic submitted by Louisa Versaw and Sydney Willcox ( versawlc@muohio.edu ) on 3/8/06. [ Human Nature Team: Louisa Versaw and Sydney Willcox-Section: Cummins/Wolfe]

The Nature of Judgment

For our research project, we are going to be studying how Miami students judge other students, specifically based on appearance, and the relationship between this type of judgment and human nature. According to Aristotle, judgment, Òlike perception, is concerned with the particular and learned by experience and exampleÓ (Fleischacker, 1994, p. 150). The judgment of others is a quality in humans based on competition, which is argued to be an element of human nature. The concept of the intolerant personality is a construct Òdescriptive of only a specific personality style of the political right, other related constructs have been advanced to account for more generalized patterns of intoleranceÓ (Enright, 1981, p. 1053). How much is intolerance of others (by judging them) part of human society? We will be asking the question, how does judgment manifest itself from competition; what is the connection between judgment and competition? We will also be asking the question: is it human nature to judge others or it a culturally constructed concept?
In the past fifty years of personality psychology, Òjudgments of personality are commonly regarded as little more than interesting social phenomena that have little, if anything, to do with any reality beyond the realm of social judgment itselfÓ (Craik, 1993, p. 208). However, if personality is shaped by culture, then judgments of personality would have a lot, if everything, to do with social judgment. As stated before, if competition is a part of human nature, then individuals would base their judgments of others on themselves. Evaluation of the self Òdoes not take place in isolation. Rather, the activities from which people infer information about the self are situated in a social contest in which the self relates to other objects in the world (Alicke, 2005, p. 109).
We will attempt to study the element of culture by testing students from both Western campus and main campus and comparing their answers and opinions. We will be testing the social aspect of judgment by seeing if a person feels their judgment of others changing in a social or group setting. For instance, are people more likely to judge others in general, or more specifically judge others in categories their peers do or make similar judgments that their peers do? We will use a scientific, empirical approach to our testing. We will be using an empirical approach in our studies and actual research and interpretive approach in understanding the meaning of the information we acquire in order to gain a better understanding of the relationship between judgment and human nature.
Beauregard and Dunning did a research experiment which studied the motivational component(s) of social judgment. ÒPeople act as though their thoughts of themselves are bound up in their judgments of others in that they manage and tailor their judgments of other people to maintain and bolster positive beliefs about themselves and their self-worth. They make sure that their evaluations of others place themselves and their own attributes in a positive lightÓ (Beauregard and Dunning, 1998, 606). Their study was geared to research how much of the self makes up our judgments of others. They used evidence from other studies as a departure point for their research: Òsuch diverse demonstrations of egocentric social thought provide strong evidence that information about the self exerts a pervasive impact on perceptions and judgments of other peopleÓ (Beauregard and Dunning, 1998, 606). Their study furthers these other studies through their specific research of the individualÕs failure and success rates and self- esteem rates when judging others: after failure, as opposed to success, an individualÕs judgments of others showed more egocentric contrast. Also, individuals with higher self-esteem also showed more judgmental contrast and harsher judgments of others. Stories are used as a means of communications with others (gossiping about others to others) and one study found that Òour close friendÕs close friendÕs close friends is about the farthestÑthree stepsÑour network can reach out when it comes to telling a storyÓ (Szefku, 2005, p. 310). Since making judgments of others has been found to form social bonds, we want to see how this plays out our study.
Another study we researched asserted that people find themselves to have contrasting traits, while believing others to only be capable of one trait and not a trait which contrasts it. This study, by Sande, Goethals, and Radloff, showed that Òpeople view themselves as having a rich and varied set of personal characteristics that they will perceive themselves as possessing some degree of each of a pair of opposing traitsÓ (Sande, Goethals, and Radloff, 1988, p 13) even if the individuals are aware that the traits are considered to be opposing, while also seeing Òothers as having one trait but not the otherÓ (Sande, Goethals, and Radloff, 1988, p14). The study also showed that people see themselves as possessing a greater degree of their traits than others do. The study asserts that Òwe do not see traits as rigidly dictating our behavior, although we may view othersÕ traits as doing soÓ (Sande, Goethals, and Radloff, 1988, p20).
Introduction:
Scientific hypothesis(es)? Our study will be examining the autonomy of an individual's judgment. Where do judgments come from? Are they based on human instincts or are they influenced by outside variables? If they are influenced, what is most likely to have an impact on judgments and what had the strongest impact? What are he patterns of judgment of others based on their own gender and other personal traits? Do people think they have the right to judge others more in one field if they believe themselves to be superior in that field? One of our hypothesis is that Miami students will judge others based on Òdimensions about which [they feel] competent and satisfied rather than using dimensions on which [they are] dissatisfiedÓ (Shrauger, 1974, p. 570). We will also be studying the connection between judgment and competition (which is argued to be a quality of human nature) as well as judgment and non-human nature elements, such as class and socialization. What is the cultural affect on an individual's judgment of others? Do individuals judge others based on the individual's gender? How much does an individualÕs self-esteem level (low to high) affect how they judge others? Do Miami students change their specific judgments when they are in a group setting?

Interdisciplinary: Our study is interdisciplinary because it requires the study and integration of many different disciplines, such as anthropology, sociology, biology and psychology.

How does your proposal address a fundamental issue of human nature? Through our study, we hope to grasp a better understanding of judging others in relation to human nature. Since judging others is found in all societies, does that mean it is necessarily human nature?

What do you plan to accomplish? Our goal is to better understand if the judgment of others is an element of human nature or a culturally constructed concept. Is it a quality of human nature or a quality of society?

How does your research connect with other aspects of our Nature of Human Nature course? Look at the syllabus to get a sense of perspectives and issues to be covered in the course.
This ties into Module 2 Ü sociobiology, evolutionary psychology, and human nature- (competition part of evolution)
module 4 Ü the social animal
4. A Specific Research Design
What is your experimental design? Be specific. We plan to utilize empirical research methods through survey. We will be handing out a survey with 3 parts: one asking the individual to evaluate their self (questions of self-esteem issues, etc.), one part asking the individual to evaluate their judgment of others (the extent of judgment, their moral views of judgment, the social acceptance of judgment/if judgment occurs more in groups); and one part asking the individual to judge the surveyor. We will also use the survey method to study a more specific aspect of judgment: the judgment of others solely based on appearance. For this part of our research, we will be handing out two identical surveys to individuals and then to groups of the same individuals. The survey will include pictures of random people and a set of questions asking about judgments/assumptions of these people. This part of our research is significant in testing the social influences of judgment and getting a better understanding of the extent to which the judgment of others is a culturally constructed concept.
What will you be measuring and why? We will be measuring the social influences of judgment to test the nurture vs. nature of the judgment of others.
How will your measures address your specific research questions? Include a specific sampling design for each method. Make sure each method is statistically sound. By asking questions about oneself in the first part of the survey and then asking questions about judgment of others in the second part, we can get a good idea of how social influences of others relate to defining oneself. When students fill out the consent form for the first survey, they will be asked to provide an email address to volunteer to take part in an additional study. In this part of the study we will have people make judgments based on photographs individually and then make judgments in small groups. This will address the socialization of judgment as well. Our sample will be Miami students.
What are the social and cultural dimensions components of your study? We will be studying the role of gender and gendersÕ social construction in judgment. For example, we found some evidence of the relation between gender and social judgment in the book Gender Roles: A Sociological Experience: ÒIn gossip begins friendship. Gossip allows girls and women to talk to one another in their common roles, share secrets, and support the needs of each other as well as themselvesÓ (Lindsey, 2005, p.83). Also in one study, Òsocially competent males were deemed more attractiveÓ while in malesÕ ratings of females, attractiveness was Òrelatively independent of the rating conditionsÓ (Effect of Presentation Modality). This is interesting because malesÕ attractiveness relates to their social status where femalesÕ attractiveness is just based on their looks. This will be interesting to see how this plays out in our study. We will also be studying cultural and social dimensions of judgment at Miami. For example, are the social and cultural dimensions of main campus and Western campus so different that their judgments of others will be so different? Is Western as accepting and open-minded as we like to believe we are?
5. Materials and Methods
Describe important materials and how they will be used. Our participants will fill out surveys on paper. To create those surveys, we will need a computer with word processing software, a printer, paper, and pens or pencils. On surveys we will be asking others to make confidential judgments of each of us (separately). For these questions, we will be dressed in different outfits and accessories (for example: glasses, wearing the typical 'Miami' look, wearing typical looks of other subcultures). Each survey will be labeled with a number corresponding to the 'look' we are wearing.
How will your research team work with each other (within a team) to "make your
project happen?" We will conduct the surveys of Miami students as a pair. The work will be done together, rather than dividing the work and splitting up to work on it individually.
Have you considered what statistics you will use in your scientific analysis? No, we will decide that after the survey has been taken based on our survey response. If we have a lot of volunteers and are able to obtain a large sampling, we may be able to include more elements, like age, major, et cetera.
Include a specific time-line of research execution.
We will allow ourselves a month worth of survey writing, surveying, and data collection to then be analyzed to come to a conclusion. We will be doing the survey research in Alexander Dining Hall and Shriver Center, and possibly in some classes as well.
Literature Review
Alicke, M., Dunning, D., & Krueger, J. (Eds.). (2005). The self in social judgment. New York: Psychology Press.
This book deals with the self as a source of constraint and social judgment. Since we want to see how much judging others affects one's notions of self, this book will be useful in providing us with what has already been done and how much judgment and social awareness have to do with that.
Atoum, A. O., & Al-Simadi, F. A. (2000). the effect of presentation modality on judgments of honesty and attractiveness. Social Behavior And Personality, Retrieved Feb 12, 2006, from http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3852/is_200001/ai_n8892065.
This study draws upon other studies of judgments of others in social interaction and how certain cues, such as non-verbal behaviors, are used in making these judgments. In this particular study, judges 'judged' others on honesty and attractiveness and the researchers saw if this related to the judges gender and nationality. This is important to our study because we want to see how the characteristics of the judger relate to the characteristics of the 'judgee.'
Beauregard, K. S., & Dunning, D. (1998). Turning up the contrast: self-enhancement motives prompt egocentric contrast effects in social judgments. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 74(3), 606-621.
This study is very similar to the study done in 1974 that we want to build upon. This study tests a motivational account suggesting that people tailor their judgments of others to affirm their own worth. The discussion of this study centers on relating these findings to theories on social comparison, self-affirmation, and social judgment.
Biernat, M. (2005). Standards and expectancies : contrast and assimilation in judgments of self and others. New York: Psychology Press.
This book contains social psychology essays dealing with social perception, self-perception, judgment, and comparison psychology. Since so many of the articles we found deal with similar topics, this book will help in designing our survey to build upon what is already known about these topics.
Craik, K., Hogan, R., & Wolfe, R. (Eds.). (1993). Fifty years of personality psychology. New York: Plenum Press.
This book contains two chapters that deal with our topic. One chapter deals with judging others based on their behavior and the other is based on judging personality. Along with the many studies we have found, this book will help to give us an idea on what has already been done and what still remains unstudied.
Darby, B. W., & Jeffers, D. (1988). The effects of defendant and juror attractiveness on simulated courtroom trial decisions. Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal, 16(1), 39-50.
This experiment was done to investigate the interactive effects of the physical attractiveness of defendants and mock jurors on judicial decisions. The more attractive participants in the study were treated as expected. The results of the study are then discussed in terms of leniency when judging others with similar attributes.
Drapkin, J. (2005). The dirty little secret about gossip. Psychology Today, 38(6), 54-60.
Since gossip is seen to be a large part of making social connections, especially among women and much of gossip is making judgments of others, we needed an article that focused on gossip. This article discusses gossip, advantages of gossip, punishment for gossip, and how the Bible deals with gossip.
Enright, R. D., & Lapsley, D. K. (1981). Judging others who hold opposite beliefs: the development of belief-discrepancy reasoning. Child Development, 52(3), 1053-1064.
This article describes three studies conducted on children. The subjects' judgments of intolerance toward disagreeing others were examined developmentally in three studies. By using a study on children in different stages of development, we can see how judgment begins or was there from the start.
Fleischacker , S. (1994). The ethics of culture. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
There are two chapters in this book that deal specifically with judging others and judging ourselves. Since we have found many studies that use judging others as a way of defining oneself as well using judgments one has made about oneself to judge others, it will be helpful in seeing these as separate as well as related concepts.
Kenealy, P., Gleeson K., Frude N., and Shaw, W. (1991). The importance of the individual in the 'causal' relationship between attractiveness and self-esteem. Journal of Community and Applied Psychology, 1(1), 45-56.
This paper argues the importance of the relationship between attractiveness and self-esteem. Since some of the other studies found a relationship between self-esteem and judging others, this study will be useful in better understanding attractiveness and how that leads to high or low self-esteem and judging others.
Lindsey, L. (2005). Gender roles: a sociological perspective. 4th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
In a section of this book titled, 'The Language of Friendship,' the author discusses that gossip begins friendship in women and girls because they talk to one another in their common roles, share secrets, and support the needs of each other and themselves. Since we are going to be using gender as part of our study, what this book has to say about gossip and gender is important.
Sande, G., Goethals, G., & Rodloff, C. (1988). Perceiving OneÕs Own Traits and OthersÕ: The Multifaceted Self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54 (1), 13-20.
This study examines the difference between oneÕs perception of their own traits and oneÕs perception of the traits of others. This will help our study in that it provides groundwork into the oppositions of internal and external perception of personality characteristics and how this affects social judgment.
Shrauger, J. S., & Patterson, M. B. (1974). Self-evaluation and the selection of dimensions for evaluating others. Journal of Personality, 42(4), 569-585.
This study was conducted on the belief that social comparison and comparative appraisal emphasize the importance of the evaluation of others as a way that people maintain or modify opinions of themselves. This study is important to ours because we want to build upon the findings of this study and possibly add other elements such as gender, class, group, and sexual orientation to see what else we can find.
Szefku, B., & Szvetelszky, Z. (2005). Three degrees of inclusion: the gossip-effect in human networks. AIP Conference Proceedings, 776(1), 308-313.
This study draws upon the scientific definition of gossip to measure its effects on human connections and networks. Before this study, no studies had been done to see how the effects of gossip lead to a network of people's self-organizing communication. This research is important to our study because judgments of others is a large part of gossip, and gossip as a social network-building tool can relate to the amount and degree of judgment that individuals or groups place on others.