Selfless Selfishness: Altruism as an aspect of human nature

This topic submitted by Patrick Magnifico and Benji Meissner ( NoFear5892@aol.com ) on 4/28/06. [ Human Nature Team: Patrick Magnifico and Benji Meissner-Section: Cummins/Wolfe]

1. Introduction
Altruism is one of the most fundamental aspects of human nature we have addressed in class thus far. One of the key questions surrounding altruistic behavior is the reason behind it. Are people naturally inclined to help each other, to spend resources- time or material- on others? Or are people generally selfish, wanting to focus their resources on themselves, and those carrying their own genes? Generally speaking, we think most of us would agree that the latter is most accurate, however empirical evidence is required to make any opinion valid in the scientific community.
For this reason we will be conducting an experiment to see what influences peoples desire to help others. Our hypothesis is that if someone is primed with a positive event then they are more likely to provide help in a time of need. If this hypothesis is correct then we will see that ÔpureÕ altruism is unrealistic, and anything which may seem like it is actually a result of outside pressures. On a side note we would like to address the concept of reciprocal altruism. The idea of reciprocal altruism is an oxymoron, it is the opposite of the term selfless selfishness which makes an equal amount of sense- none. The definition of altruism is: the belief in or practice of disinterested and selfless concern for others well-being. Therefore, reciprocal altruism is not altruism at all, as it is based on the idea that one good deed deserves another. We contend, that altruism is not an aspect of human nature.
A. Literature Review
I. Oliner, Samuel P. Do Unto Others Extraordinary Acts of Ordinary People, Westview, 2003
Annotation: This book will be useful in providing a philosophical and psychological perspective on altruistic behavior in humans. It cites information on the altruistic behavior of children, and the works of a variety of philosophers and psychologists.
II. Sober, E. & Wilson D. S. Unto Others The Evolution and Psychology of Unselfish Behavior, Harvard, 1998
Annotation: This book uses a psychological approach to explain why altruistic behavior exists. It will provide insights into the evolution of altruism in human beings. This book also looks at altruism between different groups of people, between families friends etc.
III. Ozinga, James R, Altruism Praeger, 1999
Annotation: This book explains the rationality of altruism from an economic perspective. It also looks at altruism as a Natrual Law, and Social instinct. This should help us look at altruism within a capitalist society as economics is its driving force.
IV. Nagel, Thomas The possibility of Altruism, Clarendon, 1970
Annotation: This book will provide insight into the philosophical ideas which support altruistic behavior. Looking at altruism through ñformal aspects of practical reasonî. It also cites many previous philosophers and their views on altruism.
V. Stark, Oded Altruism and Beyond Cambridge, 1995
Annotation: This book will employ economic methodology to look at altruistic behavior. It should also provide insight into the driving force of altruistic behavior in families, between generations, and within groups.
VI. Rand, Ayn The Virtue of Selfishness, 1961 New American Library
Annotation: This work from the same other as Anthem will provide a broader understanding of the psychological and philosophical perspectives of altruism. It will also provide arguments against the idea of altruism in humans.
VII. Andreoni, James Impure Altruism and Donations to Public Goods A Theory of Warm-Glow Giving, The Economic Journal Vol. 100, 464-477 http://www.jstor.org/view/00130133/di983505/98p0025p/0 9-14-06
Annotation: This online journal will provide arguments against ÔpureÕ altruism within society. Using economics as the basis for his arguments, we should see why people give for the public good (charity).
VIII. Hamilton, W.D., Altruism and Related Phenomena Mainly in Social Insects, Annual Review Journal 4041, http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.es.03.110172.001205 9-14-06
Annotation: This online journal should give us a means for comparison between humans and insects and their altruistic behavior. It should also provide information relating to the information we have received in class about the rationale behind altruistic behavior in insects.
IX. Bester, W., Werner, G. Is Altruism Evolutionarily Stable Journal of Economics: Behavior and Organization, Vol 34 193- 209 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6V8F-3SX52G8-1-1&_cdi=5869&_user=2518055&_orig=search&_coverDate=02%2F15%2F1998&_qd=1&_sk=999659997&view=c&wchp=dGLbVtb-zSkWb&md5=a2da17ffaa912c0267c1292888746882&ie=/sdarticle.pdf 9-14-06
Annotation: This economic journal will help us look at the evolutionary plausibility of altruism. It will work as a comparison for the aforementioned text of Sober, and Wilson, who used a psychological approach.
X. Andreoni, J., & Vesterlund, L. Which is the Fair Sex? Gender Differences in Altruism, http://www.pitt.edu/~vester/QJE2001.pdf 2001
Annotation: This online article will provide a look at the gender differences in altruistic behavior. The information in this article will be supplemented by the readings we did last semester in our CC class and provide a feminist perspective on altruistic behavior.
XI. Okasha, Samir, "Biological Altruism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2005 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2005/entries/altruism-biological/
Annotation: This is a solid internet source from a premiere American institution, giving a biological perspective on altruism. Okasha takes a in depth look at whether or not altruism even exists.
XII. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 16 Feb. 2006 .
Annotation: A must have for the generally excepted definitions of different important topics and ideas, including altruism.
XIII. Brosnahan, Timothy. "Altruism." New Advent, Catholic Encyclopedia. 16 Feb. 2006 .
Annotation: This is an important source because the Catholic religion claims that they coined the phrase of altruism. It also gives a historical perspective on the origins and foundations of altruism.
XIV. Barber, Nigel. Kindness in a Cruel World. Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books, 2004.
Annotation: This book takes a detailed look at the most basic form of altruism, kindness. Barber probes into altruism in different species of animals. He also discusses different theories of altruism as part of evolution and as a taught practice. The text gives a solid base for our experiment, with an in depth look at altruism among strangers.
XV. Field, Alexander J. Altruistically Inclined? Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 2001.
Annotation: This book is important to our research because it attempts to understand the apparent contrition between altruism and humanÍs evolutionary nature. It also focuses on whether or not altruism is truly a selfless act or is it in fact a form of selfishness. It also makes an effort to explain altruism toward blood relatives, unrelated acquaintances, and strangers. The non-related stranger will be the main focus in our experiment, so understanding these differences will be extremely relavant.
XVI. Grant, Colin. Altruism and Christian Ethics. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
Annotation: Due to the average student at Miami University it is imperative to have an understanding of our subjects, a majority of Miami students are Christian. This book will give us incite in to the minds of young Christians and their views on altruism. Grant argues that there is a direct link between the Christian idea of self giving love, agape, and societyÕs idea of modern altruism.
XVII. Monroe, Kristen R. The Heart of Altruism. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1996.
Annotation: This text discusses many important aspects of altruism. Monroe takes a look at the enigma of modern altruism through an interdisciplinary view points; including sociocultural, economic, evolutionary biology, and psychological. The most important information will come from her investigation in to altruist acts during the Holocaust.
XVIII. Post, Stephen G., Byron Johnson, Michael E. McCullough, and Jeffrey P. Schloss, eds. Research on Altruism and Love. Philadelphia and London: Templeton Foundation Press, 2003.
Annotation: This text summaries years worth of scientific studies into altruism in terms of psychology, sociology, evolutionary biology, and theology. This will help us to maintain interdisciplinary perspective while developing our experiment. It also includes detailed information about views on altruism from the major religions. The different social sciences perspectives will allow us to take an in depth look at love and altruism in the terms of love for all mankind.
XIX. Rushton, J. Philippe, and Richard M. Sorrentino, eds. Altruism and Helping Behavior. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 1981.
Annotation: This book gives historical perspective on altruism through multiple disciplines including biology, developmental-psychology, and social-psychology. Because the book is a compilation of multiple authors, a broader understanding of altruism can be discovered. It also contains sections on altruism in educational settings, urban environments, and perspectives on the current level of altruism in society and its future possibilities.
B. Larger Question
Our research is aimed at discovering whether or not there are ulterior motives behind what is traditionally viewed as altruistic behavior. The results of our experiment will have major implications as to the plausibility/design of an alternate system of government for the human population. If our results reflect the absence of altruistic behavior what significance does this hold over modern-day government? If most government officials arenÕt working to promote the interests of the citizens they govern, then what is their focus? Our research will provide insight into this question, one which not only reflects a key aspect of human nature, but may also be responsible for much of the poverty, hunger, and war ,which afflict humans in the modern world.
Currently people are forced to work in order to secure monetary funding for their own, and their familyÕs well-being. In a system such as ours, there is very little done to encourage charitable contributions to humanity as a whole- other than tax breaks, or gifts in return for donations, which once again reflect the illogical concept of reciprocal altruism. If one considers this to be a flaw in our current form of government, then what changes must be made in order for humans to live in an environment which encourages equality in all walks of life? Obviously we must create a system where situations which encourage humans to make decisions that benefit the community are commonplace, and fuel a circular pattern of give and take.
3. Interdisciplinary Approach
Our proposal will use an interdisciplinary approach, employing ideas from psychological, philosophical, economical, theological, and biological perspectives. Viewing altruism from a psychological perspective will allow us to view quantitative data supporting, or contending altruism in human beings. A philosophical perspective will provide the logical groundwork necessary to make a solid argument based on the results of our experiment. Knowledge from the discipline of economics will allow us to better understand altruism on a micro and macro scale based on the transfer of goods. A full understanding of altruism also depends on a biological perspective, which may explain any natural desires humans have to provide goods for one another. A theological approach will be helpful in providing evidence which contrasts the idea of humans as innately altruistic beings.
4. A Specific Research Design
For our experiment we will be looking at peopleÕs desire to help one another based on whether they were previously reinforced by a positive event, and with no reinforcement at all. We will do this by leaving a dollar bill by the exit/entrance of a building, and waiting for people- walking by themselves- to come out. If they see and pick up the dollar we will have an experimenter waiting outside to drop a pile of papers in front of the subject. We will then record whether or not they assist in collecting the papers. This same experiment will be done with and without the dollar. We will use 80 subjects 20 females and 20 males with dollar, and 20 females and males without the dollar. We will then compute the mean number of people who helped in the female group with the dollar, the male group with the dollar, the female group without the dollar, the male group without the dollar, and for males and females overall. We will attempt to do all data collection between the hours of 3:00 and 5:00 in the afternoon to avoid bias in this area. The main social/cultural condition of our study which we will need to take into account is that we are on a college campus. There is a possibility that there is a larger sense of community on campus, and this will result in a higher incidence of altruistic behavior.
5. Materials and Methods
1. 40 dollars
2. Stack of papers (large enough that it would require more than one individual to properly pick up in an efficient manner.)
The dollar will be used as a positive reinforcement for the subject. The stack of papers will be used to test the test subjects desire to help. We will need to work together, having one person drop the papers, and another recording whether or not the subject helped. To interpret the data we will be using the average number of people who helped pick up the papers. We will test 20 subjects a week for four weeks. We will test forty males and forty females responses to the stimulus. The test group will receive the stimulus, finding a dollar prior to the stack of papers falling to the ground, and the control group will not receive the dollar prior to the falling papers. In order to receive an unbiased response, we will test half of each group with the opposite sex and the other half with the same sex. The subjects will then be divided again, this time half will receive the stimulus, and the other half will receive no stimulus. The experiment will not require any informed consent, because the format of our experiment is an observational study. Names and other identifying characteristics, besides their sex, will not be necessary to the experiment and with not be taken into consideration.
6. Results
a. Observations
People who appeared to be in a hurry were more likely to avoid picking up the papers after finding the dollar, than people who didnÕt appear to be in hurry. Other than this mild observation, there was little observable difference between those who helped pick up the papers and those who did not.

This graph depicts the relationship between males possession of the money, to whether or not they helped pick up the papers.. For those who picked up the money 15 helped pick up the papers. For those who did not pick up the money only 1 helped pick up the papers.

This graph shows the relation between the gender of the participant-in this case male- to whether they picked up just the paper, just the money, both, or neither. This means that of 40 males in the study, 19 of them failed to pick up the papers or the money, 6 of them picked up only the papers, or only the money, and 15 of them picked up both.

This graph depicts the relation between female participants possession of the money, to whether or not they picked up the papers. This graph represents 40 pieces of data. For those who found the money, 17 of them helped pick up the papers. For those who did not find the money 5 of them helped pick up the papers.

This graph shows the relation between the gender of the participant-in this case female- to whether they picked up just the paper, just the money, both, or neither. This means that of 40 females in the study, 15 of them failed to pick up the papers or the money, 7 of them picked up only the papers, or only the money, and 18 of them picked up both.

This graph depicts the relation between participants possession of the money, to whether or not they picked up the papers. This graph represents 80 pieces of data. For those who found the money, 32 of them helped pick up the papers. For those who did not find the money, 6 of them helped pick up the papers.
7. Discussion and Conclusions
We now have some data to help us analyze the questions addressed in the ÒLarger QuestionÓ segment of our piece. The first question we will discuss is what significance a lack of altruistic behavior in humans has for our political system. From local positions such as sheriff, or judge, to the national seats in congress, and the senate, elected leaders are given powers above that of an average citizen. The idea is that their extra power will be used to serve the interests of the people who elected them. At the same time, in order to be elected, some sort of financial investment must be made to fund the campaign. Often times these investments come from individuals who are members of major corporations which have a vested interest in at least some of the decisions/votes left up to the official they support. So what does our data say about this? In our experiment we found that people were about four times more likely to aid in picking up the confederates papers if they had found the dollar bill on the ground. A major thing to notice here is that the participant had no knowledge of a connection between the confederate in distress, and the dollar they had just found. So now imagine how likely our government official will be to vote in favor of the corporations who funded his/her campaign. It would seem very likely, especially when you consider that 80% of people were willing to help pick up the papers without knowledge of the positive reinforcements origin.
So, assuming we are all on the same page on this issue, what changes would aid in avoiding these fundamental problems in our government? We propose, that a restriction on any form of campaign funding should be put in place. So how will candidates express their views to the voters you ask? Instead of allowing voters to be swindled by slash campaigns, and various forms of political wish-wash, information distribution should be equal for all candidates. A packet could be distributed to all registered voters which contained a one-page statement, as well as a voting history of the given candidates, without identifying them as Republicans, Democrats, or otherwise. This packet would allow each and every voter to make an educated decision if they wished, and at the same time prevent people from voting based solely on party affiliation. This alternate system of candidate publicity would take the stupidity out of voting, people would make educated decisions or none at all. This new system could be funded either through taxes, or through a minimal $10,000 to $20,000 ÔentryÕ fee for each candidate, which they would likely be able to fund independently. This way instead of wasting billions of dollars each year on providing what could be considered misinformation to the public, a comparatively miniscule amount could be used to provide solid information, in an easy-to-read packet. These reforms to our current campaign system would surely aid in dispelling the discrepancies unearthed by our research.
The second question to be addressed in light of our research is the plausibility of a classless society. Our data failed to support the idea of pure altruism as an aspect of human nature. Many arguments supporting the credibility of a classless society revolve around humans being altruistic in some form or another. We discovered that people are significantly more likely to help others when they have been primed with a positive event prior to the altruistic opportunity. Thus, if a communist society were to be implemented some sort of Òreciprocal altruismÓ would be the driving force. This claim is supported by Alexander Field in Altruistically Inclined? where, he discusses whether a man should save another man from drowning, given that the man in need will die one of two times, and a rescue attempt will result in the death of both men one in twenty times. ÒWere this an isolated event it is clear that the rescuer should not bother to save the drowning man. But if the drowning man reciprocates at some future time, and if the survival chances are then exactly reversed, it will have been to the benefit of each participant to have risked his life for the other.Ó (pg. 123) This same type of situation would have to be perpetuated in order for a communist form of government to be successful. People would need to feel that the investment they were making in the form of material goods sacrificed would be balanced by the goods received down the line. In other words for a shoe-maker to provide shoes for his community, he would need to feel that the community would provide him with the products necessary to sustain his existence, as well as reciprocate the services he has provided. Another way to provide the same end result is to have an exchange system in which one person gives to another, thereby providing a positive stimulus encouraging the recipients to contribute to another member of society. The trick in either case would be making sure that the input and output of each member remained at or around equal. Also it would be difficult to ensure that certain members of the community didnÕt attempt to hoard the goods they received, by failing to reciprocate to their fellows.
Our research not only provided insight into the previous topics of discussion, but also imparts some speculations as to the motives behind selfless behavior. Obviously the dollar had a large influence over peoples desire to help one another. The question is, what factors other than the dollar influenced their decisions? What made the 6 people who helped without positive reinforcement feel inclined to do so? One may argue that environmental factors at the early stages of development influenced these peoples desire to help others. Perhaps as children they were greatly rewarded each time they provided service to another, and were thereby classically conditioned to help. This is one plausible answer, another is that the six people who helped had some other form of positive reinforcement shortly before exiting the building. Perhaps they had just found out, about a good grade they had received on an important paper, or that they werenÕt pregnant as they had previously thought. There are a plethora of possibilities which may explain why our six special participants performed the way they did. In Unto Others by Sober and Wilson they discuss why altruism is Òso difficult to explain from the Darwinian perspective. After all, natural selection evolves traits that cause individuals to have more offspring than their competitors, not fewer. There is a selective advantage in being selfish, just as there is a selective advantage in having strong teeth.Ó (Pg. 19)
In conclusion (redundant?) we feel that most behavior which is perceived as altruistic is actually a result of other pressures. The pressures required which incite people to help others vary from person to person, and are a result of cultural, social, environmental, biological, and cognitive pressures. Many problems we face in the world today are a result of humans natural instinct to act selfishly. Governmental, or any other form of power granted to a group of individuals will be used to reward those who aided in their rise to power, biasing their true morals/judgements. In order for a functional new system to be adopted, it will require a design which either a. does not rely on altruistic behavior, or b. places citizens in a perpetual cycle of give and take. Hopefully more study will be done to continue to explore these questions, doing cross-cultural, group size, gender dependent, and location-based research.
8. Bibliography
Andreoni, James Impure Altruism and Donations to Public Goods A Theory of Warm- Glow Giving, The Economic Journal Vol. 100, 464-477 http://www.jstor.org/view/00130133/di983505/98p0025p/0 9-14-06
Andreoni, J., & Vesterlund, L. Which is the Fair Sex? Gender Differences in Altruism, http://www.pitt.edu/~vester/QJE2001.pdf 2001
Barber, Nigel. Kindness in a Cruel World. Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books, 2004.
Bester, W., Werner, G. Is Altruism Evolutionarily Stable Journal of Economics: Behavior and Organization, Vol 34 193- 209 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6V8F- 3SX52G8-1- 1&_cdi=5869&_user=2518055&_orig=search&_coverDate=02%2F15%2F1998 &_qd=1&_sk=999659997&view=c&wchp=dGLbVtb- zSkWb&md5=a2da17ffaa912c0267c1292888746882&ie=/sdarticle.pdf 9-14-06
Brosnahan, Timothy. "Altruism." New Advent, Catholic Encyclopedia. 16 Feb. 2006 .
Field, Alexander J. Altruistically Inclined? Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 2001.
Grant, Colin. Altruism and Christian Ethics. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
Hamilton, W.D., Altruism and Related Phenomena Mainly in Social Insects, Annual Review Journal 4041, http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.es.03.110172.00120 5 9-14-06
Monroe, Kristen R. The Heart of Altruism. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1996.
Nagel, Thomas The possibility of Altruism, Clarendon, 1970
Oliner, Samuel P. Do Unto Others Extraordinary Acts of Ordinary People, Westview, 2003.
Okasha, Samir, "Biological Altruism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2005 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2005/entries/altruism-biological
Ozinga, James R, Altruism Praeger, 1999
Post, Stephen G., Byron Johnson, Michael E. McCullough, and Jeffrey P. Schloss, eds. Research on Altruism and Love. Philadelphia and London: Templeton Foundation Press, 2003.
Rand, Ayn The Virtue of Selfishness, 1961 New American Library
Rushton, J. Philippe, and Richard M. Sorrentino, eds. Altruism and Helping Behavior. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 1981.
Sober, E. & Wilson D. S. Unto Others The Evolution and Psychology of Unselfish Behavior, Harvard, 1998.
Stark, Oded Altruism and Beyond Cambridge, 1995
Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 16 Feb. 2006