Isaac Bloom
Jesse Bryant
Virginia Simpson
Hannah Strange
Joel Wright
INTRODUCTION
Ernst Wynder and Joshua Muscat wrote,
ìIf we had to make just one recommendation of broad public health importance beyond that purely relating to nutrition, we would provide all children, ideally beginning in preschool, a health education program that teaches them, besides knowledge about risk-taking behavior, the idea that they are responsible for their own health on a lifelong basis.î
Today around a third of American adults are obese (Wynder 189) seventy-five percent of which were obese as children (Wynder 192). Our eating choices are affecting our lives in potentially detrimental ways as American diets are becoming increasingly fatty, sugar filled, salt filled and nutritionally depleted (Wynder 189). How are we making our eating choices--by habit or by knowledge? This module will attempt to address this question and challenge the student to explore nutrition, alternative eating habits, effects on eating habits, and global views of nutrition.
GENERAL NUTRITION NOTES
Most decisions on what is considered adequate nutrition for daily living are decided by the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Sciences. The standard unit of measurement is RDA (Recommended Daily Allowance). The RDA is used to simplify the calculations of nutritional needs but should not be taken as a requirement per day, in fact, it is estimated that a person can maintain dietary adequacy over a five to eight day period. However, if the is a deficiency outside of this period than the body is affected in several ways--ability to respond to stress decreases, and depletion and deterioration of the body occurs.
The right RDA level depends upon a personís age and sex to meet the various needs of individuals some specifics of which will be discussed later. What you read on food labels is not RDA but another scale (USRDA - United States Recommended Daily Allowance) of measurements developed by the Food and Drug Administration which is based upon a broad age group of people for the simplification of food labeling. (Compare tables one and two in the appendix.)
Both scales were based upon the same research and information estimated by information on requirements for other mammals or information about the nutrient. The evaluation of a nutrientís importance is measured by the efficiency of utilization of the nutrients by the body because different nutrients are absorbed in different amounts by the body, some are absorbed quickly and in whatever quantity they are presented while others are absorbed a little bit at a time. This is also changed by the variety of foods, preparations styles and the functioning of the human bodies in different areas so that RDAs will differ from country to country. Universally though, it is important to eat a wide variety of foods to meet all of the bodies basic needs and requirements.
Basic Needs of the Body:
(a) Energy-needed for metabolic processes, support of physical activity, growth, maintenance of body temperatures and the production of breast milk. Energy levels differ between ages and sexes through needs like ëgrowth spurtsí and breast feeding. Levels also decreases progressively with the increase in age in the adult years.
(b) Proteins-which make up fifty percent of the bodies dry weight are made up of larger clusters of amino acids and gives the body nitrogen both needed for tissue growth and maintenance. Cells are continually repaired and replaced and the need fro protein can be affected by infections, fevers, and surgical trauma. Protein in foods is not all equal and differs in quantity, quality, digestibility and the amino acids.
(c) Fats-used for energy reserves, internal organ padding, and heart protection. It is necessary in a diet for the absorption of the ìfat-solubleî vitamins A, D, E and K. The term fat is interchangeable with the term lipid. Lipids are divided into three categories: triglycerides, cholesterol and phospholipids. Triglyceride refers to the chemical structure of three (tri) fatty acids (which are carbon atoms chained with hydrogen) linked to glyceride and can be further divided into four different fatty acid groups two of which are saturated fat and unsaturated fat. Saturated fats have all single bonds, can only hold a limited amount of hydrogen and is solid at room temperature. Unsaturated fats have one or more double bonds, can take in more hydrogen than is initially is made of and is liquid at room temperature. (See diagram 1)
(d) Carbohydrates (carbs)-provide most of the energy in the human diet through helping the body utilize the protein it intakes. Carbohydrates can be made out of protein if the body is in need but protein sources are expensive in that the body is dependent how much it can consume. So, it is easier on the body and more efficient if it doesnít need to manufacture carbohydrates. There are several different types of carbohydrates. One, the complex carbs and starches are made of long chains of sugar molecules that take time to be broken down and the simple sugars are slowly released into the body. Two, simple carbs and sugar are more readily absorbed by the body but are a quick and short burst of energy. Sugars also are unhealthy sources of carbs due to their effects on the body and blood vessels. Three, alcohol which is not technically a carbohydrate but derives carbs through natural fermentation and distillation. It is mostly empty calories and no nutrition. Four, refined carbs have been stripped of their nutrients through processing and finally, five, whole foods which provide a blend of complex, simple and fibrous carbs that have retain their natural vitamins, minerals and fibers.
(e)Vitamins and Minerals-the body needs a wide variety in order to keep the body functioning, however the essential one have been narrowed down to 10 vitamins and 6 minerals. Vitamins are organic compounds essential to a lot of chemical reactions in the body through their actions with enzymes. They provide no energy and are not needed for body structure. On the vitamin side there are those that are fat soluble (A, D, E and K) and those that are water soluble (the 9 ìB-complexesî and C). Fat soluble vitamins are less likely to be lost in cooking and are stored in the body. Water soluble vitamins are sensitive to heat making them easily (and massively) lost in cooking and are excreted in urine making their replenishment needed daily. Also, many vitamins serve the same function but if one is missing the process is retarded. Minerals are needed for efficiency in body functions. The quantity of need varies from a lot of some (Ex. calcium) to traces of others (Ex. zinc). They make up bone structures, normal functions of nerve and muscles , activate enzymes and transport oxygen. (See charts 1 and 2)
(f) Water-necessary for digestion (pass nutrients through intestines to bloodstream) and waste removal.
(g) Roughage (fiber, bulk, cellulose)-is the indigestible residue of fruits, vegetables and grains, needed for the proper function of the lower intestinal tract, prevention of constipation and the formation of feces.
One last thing, the Food Guide Pyramid was developed as an easy way to remember what quantities of which food groups to eat in order to gain a balanced diet. It should be noted that it is a guide, not absolute law, and that each group provides some, but not all, of the nutrients needed. The problem viewed with the food pyramid is that it is tailored for an omnivorous diet and when you are not omnivorous you have to find the missing nutrients in other foods. A diagram of the food pyramid can be found in the appendix, diagram 2. (Also, see chart 3 about eating habits doís and donítís.)
DIETS: OMNIVOROUS, VEGETARIANISM, VEGANISM
Our study concentrated on three major eating patterns. The first, omnivores, include animal products like meat and dairy in their diet. The second, vegetarians, do not eat meat but include dairy and eggs in their diet. The third, vegans, do not consume any animal products.
OMNIVORE
In our culture, an omnivorous diet is the most common. Acceptance and predominance of this diet is abundantly evident: restaurant menus cater to omnivores, nutrition guides like the FDA food pyramid are based on a meat-eating diet, stores are poorly stocked with vegetarian nutritional needs, and social functions can be uncomfortable for vegetarians because, as the commercial goes, "Beef. It's what's for dinner". Literature discussing nutrition rarely expresses worry about omnivores' malnutrition in an extent comparable to the concern vegetarians receive. At the most, such literature warns meat eaters of the dangers of a high fat diet.
VEGETARIAN
Vegetarianism has seen a rise in recent years in the U.S., particularly among young people. In general, the decision to become a vegetarian is a conscious one, as our survey supported. Vegetarians choose not to eat meat for a variety of reasons, which fall into six broad categories.
The first is health concerns. Vegetarian diets are found to fill nutritional recommendations for fats, carbohydrates, and proteins better than meat eating diets (Melina 4). Further, plant-based diets are subject to fewer pesticides, bacteria, and viruses stemming from injections given to livestock than are meat-based ones.
The second category is ethics and animal rights. Vegetarianism is, for many, a statement against violence and cruelty. The process of animal agriculture is inhumane in all stages: the transport of animals involves crowded and unsanitary conditions; the slaughter primitive and violent (Melina 4). The farming of livestock involves treating animals like machines that produce products for our consumption, rather than as living creatures. Vegetarians object to the lack of compassion shown for animals.
Concern for the environment is also a reason people become vegetarian. Vegetarian diets reduce environmental destruction in the following ways: reducing the amount of land and water used by livestock for grazing, reducing topsoil depletion and the amount of pesticides used to grow animal feed, slowing the rate of destruction of natural habitats and ecosystems, and slowing global warming caused by the overuse of fossil fuels in animal farming processes.
World hunger can be alleviated by eating low on the food chain, as vegetarians do. Animal agriculture is very inefficient, producing very little food for the amount of energy used. "One quarter of the world's population uses 80-86 percent of the non-renewable resources and 34-53 percent of the food" (Melina 6). Food production in developing countries tends to focus on the production of meat for export rather than on growing food for the indigenous people. This leads to the economic argument-- meat is food for rich people who reside predominantly in western countries. If farming policies favored grains and vegetables , the use of land would shift and populations could be fed more cheaply and efficiently (Melina 7).
Finally, religion can be a reason for adopting a vegetarian diet. Many eastern religions, including Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism, promote reverence for life and harmony with nature in their guiding philosophies. Thus, consumption of meat is counter to the religion. Some Christian and Catholic groups also encourage vegetarianism.
VEGAN
Vegans do not include any animal products in their diet, and often do not consume animals in other forms such as clothing, shoes, and health and beauty products. Though dairy products and eggs do not involve the slaughter of animals, vegans contend that animals are not ours to use or consume. Milking cows and taking eggs from chickens involves cruel practices, unsanitary and often atrocious living conditions for the animals, and injection of hormones and pharmaceuticals that demonstrates a disregard for animals lives. Vegans rejection of even milk and eggs demonstrates a more complete embrace of the ethical, political and social principles discussed above.
Nutritionists express a great deal of concern about vegans being malnourished. Vegans need to concern themselves with getting sufficient amounts of calcium, protein, vitamin D, and vitamin B12, which is made exclusively by micro-organisms. Specialty vegan foods such as tofu and soy milk are often supplemented with these vitamins and minerals, though, and vegans are generally aware of their dietary need and eat accordingly. Studies have shown that vegans receive sufficient nutrition and develop at a rate comparable to omnivores and vegetarians (Wakeman 265).
NUTRITION AND SPORTS
The nutrition choices of adolescents are often affected by the sports which they play in educational or extra-curricular settings. Each sport often has a dietary regimen prescribed by the coach for maximum performance. What this means is that while life choices in nutrition are being made, diets that are specifically suited towards a certain physical exercise program can become a part of the daily routine. These routines can translate into health trouble as the individual gets farther down the line and may no longer be involved in the sport. In some cases, eating disorders can result.
Letís examine some of the dietary suggestions of specific sports. Runners and swimmers are encouraged to eat meals which are composed almost entirely of carbohydrates, such as pasta and grain products. Such a diet will decrease the general fat percentage and still leave energy for the sport. However, this diet is hard to balance with other food groups because the emphasis is on lack of fat in food . (Williams 54)
Other sports-related diets go even further to bring the players into ëfighting shapeí. Wrestlers and ballerinas are expected to drop at least ten pounds at the beginning of the season, and are expected to keep it off. Ballerinas are attempting to keep their bodies as thin as possible, while building muscle through exercise; this often leads to bingeing and purging, as well as bulimia. Wrestlers are attempting to keep their weight within a certain range, which is often as much as fifteen of twenty pounds below their normal weight. Before a match, coaches will often go to extremes in order to get their wrestlers under weight, trying to work off enough of the bodyís liquid to make the critical distance. This can lead to heat prostration as well as various eating disorders. (Bloom)
Because of the nature of adolescence nutritional choices are formed along with all other social activities. Diets which are associated with sports are often re-enforced by the adolescents peers, who many times are also active participants in the sport . Thus, the diet formed by the sport is often drummed into the adolescent by several important formation forces at once. If handled correctly, and with proper research and advice for the players, then sports nutrition can be an effective enhancer of performance. However, when the drive to win over-rides the individualís care for him or herself, sports nutrition can lead to abuse. (Buxbaum 26)
FADS AND FOOD TRENDS
Another of the major factors in peopleís nutrition is fads and trends in food. These fads may be caused by any number of things, but the underlying aspect of all of them is that they are often popular for the wrong reasons. One example of a trend in food was the emergence of minute rice during the Korean War. ìGeneral Foods introduces Minute Rice...which was distributed to GIUs in K rations.î (Trager 536) This was also one of the first consumer products released that was affiliated with the military, and it was extensively advertised as such. Thus, nationalism has played its part in deciding trends in
food as well.
But, since the 1960ís, the biggest determinant in the popularity of a food has been easy access, quick and simple ways to make dinner for the family on the go. In 1953 ìa 98 cent t.v. dinner...was introduced by Swanson & Sons of Omaha...to suit the needs of working mothers burdened with baby-boom offspring.î (Trager 543) And thus was the emergence of the ëmicrowave and t.v.í (Trager 545) age. The days of the family sitting around the table with a home cooked, shotgun killed turkey were over, and urbanization was taking the food industry by storm.
These trends continued, morphing occasionally, into present day. And now, more than ever, is the convenience of food valued over the nutritional content. And this is especially evident in adolescents. In 1986 ì72% of adolescents age 12-17 described...McDonalds as their favorite restaurant.î (Trager 675) Also in 1986 ìBurger King opens a record 546 new outlets world-wide, giving it a total of 4,743 restaurants in operations.î. (Trager 676) Obviously, food fads affect everyone, but it seems that adolescents may be the most greatly impacted. Whether it is fast food or frozen food, it seems that American adolescents are eating more out of convenience than nutrition.
INTERNATIONAL CONCERNS OF NUTRITION
There are many aspects of nutrition that are not based on personal preference. Vegans and vegetarians are two such examples. The nutrition of many individuals is often impacted by geographic location and culture. The general nutrition levels of developed countries is much higher than that of almost all developing countries. And the reasons for this are inextricably tied to availability and cultural influences on diet.
The first and greatest as far as general nutrition is concerned is location and availability. In many developing countries the primary source of calories is grains. (Dreze 454) But this does not account for endemic under-nourishment of key nutrients. The caloric intake of many developing countries, primarily in Africa, Asia, and South America is almost as high as that of developing countries. But 90% of these calories comes from grains and cereals. (Dreze 334) The concern here is availability of proper foods to given locations. Availability of meats and many fruits and vegetables to many rural population, or the bulk of the population in many developing countries, are almost nil. This arises from a multitude of sources. One such source of this problem is that many developing countries import much of the food stock that they cannot themselves produce. Nearly 85% of these imports are consumed in the urban areas of these countries. (Dreze 455) Another aspect of availability is class. On a global level the United States and Europe are ranked in the consuming class and most of the developing countries fall into the categories of middle and poor classes. The availability of nutritious foods to the middle and poor classes is extremely low due to the enormous consumption rates of the consumption class. (Durning 27,28)
Low nutrition levels in certain global populations is also a matter of culture. Based on the traditional food pyramid most of southern Africa and Asia consume too many grains and cereals. This is rooted in the history of the culture. The cultures that developed in these regions harnessed the capacity to produce enormous amounts of grain. As the populations grew so did grain and cereal production, the two feed obviously feed off of each other. The population grew and so did the amount of grain but many other food groups were pushed to the side because they were to hard to produce for such large populations.
There are many reasons for varying nutrition levels; availability based on location and class and cultural influences. There are many aspects that were not touched upon, but these are the two major aspects of under-under-nourishment in modern times.
RESULTS OF OUR SURVEY (an example of the survey in the appendix)
Our original intention was to create a survey which only reflected the dietary choices of the surveyed. As we began to research and to collate ideas for our syllabus it became clear that this was not going to be good enough; for this reason, we decided to modify the survey to include questions about the whyís behind the dietary choices. Out of one hundred people surveyed, 56% said that they were omnivores, 32% said that they were vegetarians, 6% said they were vegan, and another 6% said that they were íotherí. It is surmised by the creators of the survey that those who answered that they were ëotherí were people who ate meat only occasionally, or were allergic to some variety of food. Those who answered ëotherí were questioned by the interviewers out of curiosity; none were anything more strict than the vegan; no-one was a macrophage vegan, to my dismay.
Sixty-two percent of those people polled about the reasons behind their dietary choices answered the related question. 16% of people said they attributed their dietary choices to ëhuman issuesí; 7% marked ecological; 10% marked ëspiritualí; 27% marked economic; 24% marked ëhealth concernsí; 4% marked of social; 20% marked ëpoliticalí; and 48% marked ëenjoyment of foodí. These figures can be interpreted that the majority of peoples dietary choices are based on their enjoyment of the food they eat, constrained by economic factors, and finally by health concern and political considerations. The other choices are greatly in the minority.
Three fourths of the people polled said that they were considering changing their dietary habits, but only one third said that they would follow through with these considerations. Two thirds of these polled feel that they eat a balanced diet. One third supplement their diets with vitamins. Two thirds are dissatisfied with local food prices, as well as with the selections offered. Two thirds were also dissatisfied with local restaurant selections.
Course Syllabus
Semester Topic: Nutrition, Culture, and Lifestyles
General Description/Course Goals:
This course presents the issue of nutrition from several
perspectives. The course gives an overview of many of the factors that
influence nutrition here, in America, and all over the world. Aspects of
nutrition from anorexia to availability of food will be covered, and the
students will be asked to analyze some of them from their own perspective.
Students will also be asked to compare their own nutrition to that of
others in their home, in their country and in other nations worldwide.
Also, students will be encouraged to look at their own nutrition from
these other perspectives, and, possibly, take it into question. The goal
of the course is to allow students to see nutrition as more than the
simple act of buying or consuming food. The intent is to show the students
the cultural, social as well as economic issues present in food and
nutrition today.
Course Books:
America's Foods: Health Messages and Claims- Scientific, Regulatory and Legal Issues. edited by James E. Tillotson. (Boca Ratom: CRC Press) 1998
Bernstein, Henry. The Food Question: Profits vs. People. NY, NY. Monthly Review Press. 1990.
Buxbaum, Robert and Micheli, Lyle J. Sports For Life: Fitness Training, Nutrition, and Injury Prevention. Beacon Press. 1979.
Corbin, Cheryl, M.S., R.D. Nutrition (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston) 1989
Dreze, Jean, Athar Hussain, Amartya Sen. The Political Economy of Hunger. (New York: Oxford University Press Inc). 1995
Durning, Alan. How Much is Enough? (New York: W.W. Norton & Company Inc.) 1992
Echols, Barbara E. and Arena, Jay M, M.D. The Commonsense Guide to Good Eating (Woodbury, New York: Barrons) 1978
Melina, Vesanto. Becoming Vegetarian. (Summertown, Tennessee, Book Publishing Company) 1995
Trager, James. The Food Chronology. (New York: Henry Holt & Co.) 1995
Twose, Nigel. Cultivating Hunger: An Oxfam Study of Food, Power, and Poverty. Oxford. Oxfam Pub. 1984
Williams, Clyde and Devlin, John T. Foods. Nutrition and Sports Performance. (New York: Chapman and Hall) 1992
Requirements:
1. Participation. Though there is no attendance requirement, students are
expected to participate and be prepared for class. Participation counts
for 30 % of the grade.
2. Two short written assignments. These papers will count for 10% of the
grade each.
3. Mid term project. The project is worth 20% of the final grade.
4. Final Project. 30% of the grade.
Schedule of Meetings and Presentations:
Week: Topic:
1. Introduction to nutrition.
2. Nutritional guides and planning a balanced diet.
3. Why do we eat what we eat? Exploration of cultural influences.
4. Why do we eat what we eat? Exploration of personal choices.
Assignment one due.
5. Diets, nutrition trends, food trends, and nutrition for athletes.
6. Eating disorders, body image, adolescent nutrition.
7. How does the media influence our eating patterns? Assignment two due.
8. Food marketing strategies.
9. Food distribution in the U.S.: the agricultural system, import system, and the economy.
10. Food in the U.S.: historical discussion. Midterm project due.
11. Food around the world: urbanizationUs effect on the diet.
12. Food around the world: The population explosion and implications for hunger.
13. Food around the world: discussion of the causes and effects of famine.
14. Cultural festivals that relate to food. (Student initiated explorations).
15. Independent research for final project (class will meet in library).
16. Project presentations. Final assignments due.
Assignment Descriptions
1) For the first assignment you have two options. The first is to keep a
journal of what you eat for a week. Write down what you eat and (roughly)
how much of it at what times of the day. The second option is to write a
2-3 page personal statement of what you eat and why. For example, if you
are a vegetarian, you would explain what foods you eat regularly and why
you chose to become a vegetarian (political, health , etcI).
2) The second assignment is to keep a journal tracking which food products
are advertised on any network TV station (NBC ABC FOX CBS) during
primetime (8-10:00) for an evening. The purpose if this exercise is to
help you recognize trends in food marketing and food types.
3) The third assignment is to compare and contrast your eating habits to
that of someone you know from another culture or someone who is at least
25 years older than you (such as a parent or [even better] a grandparent).
This should be a 5-8 page paper including discussion of what the person
you chose ate when they were your age (if they are older) and what they
eat now.
4) The final assignment asks that you use all that you have learned to
compare and contrast the nutrition of American culture to that of another
culture, and to include a personal narrative of where you feel you fit in
the world food economy. What changes (if any) would you like see and why?
What should remain the same and why?
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