Harker's Run Site Photos
Collin's Run Site Photos
To study deforestation in our local area, we compared two tributaries of Four Mile Creek to see the differences between more and less deforested areas. The Four Mile Creek (4MC) watershed has and continues to be heavily invested in agricultural practices. We looked at the 4MC watershed historically to determine how and why this geographical area's level of forestation has changed to develop an understanding of how human actions have decreased the number of trees along the 4MC banks. Specifically, we sought to find the impact of increased agriculture along the banks. We also wanted to examine literary works to study the cultural ties to 4MC. We did this primarily through literature, which to us meant fiction and newspaper articles. In addition we looked at the economic reasons for our presumed deforestation, including timber sales and use of land after forest clearings. To scientifically determine the current state of each of the tributaries we measured sedimentation because it i a well-known indicator of the extent of deforestation. We hypothesized that we would find greater sediment load in the areas that have been deforested and downstream from these areas. Therefore we predicted that more sediment would be found in Collins Run and Harker's Run should have less.
Previously, a Rivers research group from last year studied sedimentation in 4MC. This study provided us with some useful information. Since deforestation is a global issue, our study was predicated on the knowledge from other sites on a worldwide basis. Through this project we discovered how this global problem manifests itself in our local area. This project is integrally connected with the Rivers course itself because it studies the interaction between human and watersheds. In addition, we hoped that our results and conclusions might be helpful within that broader framework of deforestation research. In the end, we hope to offer future researchers better overall methods including information on choosing appropriate, statistically meaningful sites and under what conditions to gather data. We also suggest future areas of study for this project.
First, we gathered our field equipment which included plastic vials, galoshes, the velocity machine, measuring tape, and yardstick. Then we set out to each site. A car was invaluable in carrying field equipment from one tributary to the other. After walking from the car to each test site, measurements began by using the measuring tape to ascertain the width of the water in the creek. Next, the yardstick was used to measure depth because it was not a malleable material as the measuring tape was. We needed these measurements to tell us whether it was a relatively high or low water day. The velocity machine was used to determine the speed of the stream in meters per second. Plastic vials were used to collect stream water to take it back to the lab for testing. At each site we took a sample along each shore, and at the top of the middle and bottom of the middle. We had planned to take a sample from the middle depth of the middle width as well, but the depth of the tributaries did not accommodate that. We collected all of these measurements 5 times to ensure the most accurate comparisons possible. All of this information was gathered in order to calculate sediment load.
Previously in the lab coffee filters had been marked with the two or three letter code corresponding to each sample to be taken. The filters were dried in the oven, weighed, had a test tube of water pored through them, and put back in the oven. Once the oven had dried the filters again, they were weighed again. This involved making sure the scale was zeroed before each filter was placed on it and that the weight of each filter rested entirely on the scale mechanism. The difference between the first weight and post-sample weight was taken to determine the amount of sediment per sample. Sediment load was calculated. All data was placed into the spreadsheet. Then the data analysis began. Unfortunately, we did not get samples at times of high water because of poor weather reporting and sheer group member availability. This seriously affected the comparisons we were able to make and our statistical significance.
Our methods for collecting our cultural and social data included trips to Butler County Historical Society and Smith Library. From them we received poetry and newspaper articles that detailed the growth of cultural feelings about the watershed.
The location that the sample was taken from within the stream at each site played a role in such factors as sediment and velocity. For example, the middle bottom locations of both tributaries had more sediment than the middle top or the sides (Figure 2).
The different times, or days that we sampled also influenced the factors of sediment by stream and location. Both tributaries had unique variation of sediment between the different days that we sampled. Times A, B, C, D, and E correspond to the different days that we sampled. The day of greatest sediment on Harker's Run was day 4, or time D (Figure 5).
We calculated the discharge, or the amount of water flowing through the creek, for both Harker's and Collins. We calculated this value by multiplying the depth and width of the creek, or the area of a cross-section, by the velocity. The discharges that we calculated were 0.2723 cu.m/s for Collins Run and 0.6730 cu.m/s for Harker's Run. We further calculated from this the amount of sediment that was passing through the river per second. We then converted this value to the amount of sediment passing through the river per day. These values were approximately 4916 kg/day and 16462 kg/day for Collins and Harker's respectively. In order to be able to relate to these values, we converted these amounts to the equivalent number of bags of Skittles that the sediment would fill.
When we looked at one of the studies from last year's Rivers groups also examining sediment loads, we found some interesting results. The group of Kaci Stewart, Sam Dunlap, and Donna Zimmerman found a significant difference in sediment between the days of high water and low water (Figure 7).
By 1795, the peace of the Treaty of Greenville (which assured a peace from the Native Americans) reawakes a passion to resettle the upper Ohio River valley region. Many of these settlers had already made homes for themselves in Kentucky, but expressed "a desire to get away from the social evils prevailing in Kentucky in those days/ Even then, slavery existed there and the treatment of the Blackman by their taskmasters filled the air with the sound of lashes, curses and cries of stress. Horse racing and gambling were the usual amusements of the Sabbath day in many localities."(McGinnis, ??)
In the fall of 1797 a survey party that included some future Oxford citizens (such as Samuel Beeler, John Hancock, Hennery Hall and Joel Collins) set out from Lexington Kentucky to search for a home and stake out claims in the northwest Territory "where religion morality and Knowledge for the masses shall forever be encourage."(Skinner, ??) Some of these men had been in the area before campaigning against the Shawnees with General Wayne. According to them, (and the literature that we found) the trip was an arduous one. Even though there was a well marked trail along Four-Mile Creek (which had been used as a hunting trail by the Native Americans for hundreds of years) they were plagued by wolf howls and panther calls, and were forced to eat their food raw to avoided attracting predators by the smell of cooking flesh.
The Early Settlers
"Here the forest primeval stood gloomily and grand,
Awaiting the touch of the conqueror's hand
Dark, dense, and silent, and gloomy and lone,
Where solitude reigned in a Kingdom her own,
Then wound through the forest men rough clad but
hale,
And the humble log cabin rose hard by the trail,
The oaks and the maple give way to the corn,
And whistled the bob white glad cheer to the morn
While smoke curling rose, of faith the clear sign
Faith in of man and the Helper Divine"(??, 5)
The first settlers to the region did not settle in Oxford (as there was no Oxford at that time) but choose to settle along the banks of the Four Mile Creek. In 1803, Beeler (one of the men in the first claim staking expedition) moved his family to a site right off of 4MC. It did not take long for many others to join this early community. "In 1803, aside from the few settlers along Four Mile Creek, the College Township, as the district was the known was untouched by human hand. The only way through the forest and uplands was the Indian path."(Skinner, ??) 1806 was the year that Joel Collins and his family migrated from Kentucky and built a cabin along a small creek later known as Collins Run. Joel Collins also built a powder mill along the creek as well. Though there was a small burgeoning community growing up along Four-Mile Creek, the surrounding countryside was still virgin forest. It was not until the land for the College was surveyed, did more settlers start to spread out. The Trustees of the college had been granted land to rent for revenue for the new institution. "By the decision of the Bard not more than one -third of the farm lots were offered, at not less than 2.50 per acre, not more than one-half of the town lots at not less than 16.662/3 per lots and 5.00 per acre on the four-acre out lots" (Stewart, 26) Settlers started to stream in because the land was cheap.
With more settlers wanting to farm, the forest began to be cleared and the "rich" valleys of Four-Mile creek and Indianan creek were son being planted with corn, wheat, and oats, or being grazed by sheep. Four-Mile, and Indian Creek, provide the settlers with great economic advantages, fulling mills, grist mills, saw mills, and distilleries, soon became a familiar site along the banks of the two creeks. "The first farms were taken on Four Mile Creek, partly because the land was richer there and partly because the was some vague notion that transportation and communication depended upon the streams."(Stewart, 5) Flat boats navigated the streams in times of high water, bringing settlers and goods to the towns. The economic state of the town from 1803 to 1817 as described by Jacob Burnet
"The first improvement in the navigation of the West, and her commercial operations, was the introduction of barges moved by sails, when the wind permitted, and at other times, rye oars and setting-poles, as the state of the water might require. The vessels were contracted to carry from 50-100 tons. In we seasons, if the properly manned they could make two trips between Cincinnati and New Orleans, in a year. The increased quantity of cargo they carried reduced the price of fright, and enabled them to transport, from to New Orleans to Cincinnati, at from 5-6 dollars per hundred which was below he average charge of carriage across the mountains...The vessels which hey constructed were well adapted to the purpose for which they were designed, and continued in used, till the introduction of steamboats, about the year 1817." (Stewart, 52)
Despite the relative ease of river transportation, the goods were still rather expensive, so early Oxford citizens tried to be as self-sufficiency and possible. Life in the new township was not easy at all but the land was fertile and lended itself to agriculture
"The preparation for agriculture involved the clearing of the land which as no easy task. The usual method was to girdle the tree and burn it piece by pieced as it decayed. O the land thus cleared the pioneer grew the burps upon which he depended for part f his daily food. The crops included potatoes, turnips and beans and from the grain harvested hominy and Johnny-cake were made." (Stewart, 19)
Yet with all that was involved by 180 there still 890 men and 796 women who were "free white" citizens and 18 men and 14 "free colored" citizens in Oxford. The creeks provided the citizens with great economic opportunities (in the form of production and refining)
"...The district was well provided with sites for woolen, grist and saw mills. In the crude gristmills flour and mal, ground between burrs of native boulders were filled with refuse, which was removed by the use of a deerskin sieve. At the saw mill, great native trees of wild cherry, walnut, butternut, maple, oak and hickory to say nothing l of less valuable varieties, were prepared for use in the construction of houses, barns, furniture, and even coffins for the departed pioneer.' (Skinner, ??)
There were also fulling mills that prepared wool for export to other makers and distilleries that converted the excess grain into a "well and favorably known" local whiskey. The census of 1820 also showed that only 86 people consider them selves to be in the manufacturing business, while another eighty tow were involved with agriculture of some type (generally corn or wheat).
In the nineteen hundreds there would be about seventeen well-documented mills built along Four-Mile, Harker's Run, and Collins Run creeks. It must be noted that the sources that we pored over did admit that there were probably many more mills, but records at that time were not always comprehensive and some had even been lost. Butler County was for milling because the creeks often had desired twist where mills races could be dug. These mills were very important for the development of the area. There was some social stratification in the milling business, the names of the mills that have been recorded were not the names of the millers (or even the names that the mill were known by) (those names are lost to history) instead they are the names of the men (and in a few cases women) who financially backed the mills. One of the most written about mills (and the earliest grist mill) was Aaron Austin's gristmill that was erected in 1815 along the Four-Mile Creek. There are some detailed descriptions of this mill such as this:
"This building was a frame, three stories height, and was supplied with power by sixteen foot overshot water wheel. This mill was used for about thirty years, when it burned down." (History of Butler County Archives, 505)
That article, goes on to describe Austin (and his sons) as having "sterling" qualities, and being a great miller. This is indicative of many of the descriptions that we found about the mill owners. It was also interesting to discover that one of the documented mills along Four-Mile creek was ran by a single woman in the 1830's. Her name was Burris, and she was a teacher by trade and is also said to have had a wonderful character. Ironically, all of the mills reportedly ended with the same fate; fire, with that, it is no wonder that the first Mayor of Oxford set out to give the city a better fire department.
In 1828, many felt that the Oxford area was still densely forested. "There was so much timber still standing in 1828 that the Literary Register made the notation that on Sunday October 19th 'Candles had to be lit in this place at dinner? the air being darkened by an unusual quantity of smoke arising from the woods which are on fine in this vicinity.'"(Stewart, ??) This fire was one that was caused by the clearing of the land. By the 1830, the area would experience great economic and cultural growth. However, the effects of deforestation would soon be noticed by the residents.
The reports from the 1882s and beyond would speak on the state of nature and compare it with day's of old.
"Although the surface of Butler County, sixty years ago, was thickly covered with a heavy and vigorous growth of timber, eight tenths of which removed, yet there are now no perceive changes in either the manna temperature, the mean quantity of rain precipitated, the frequency of durations of showers or in the e character or directions of the prevailing winds." (History of Butler County Archives, 126)
While this author tried to compare the state of Oxford against what was it known state some 60 years before, he did not think to question the health of the river. Of course, as if anything else there was disagreement on the subject, one author would write that:
"Nearly all the lands in the country of this quality have been cleared for more than fifty years, and have since been cultivated almost continuously. Portions of these lands have been occasionally subject to inundation form backwater, and have thereby become greatly enriched, while other portions have been injured by the displacement of the soil o the covering of the same with gravel." (History of Butler County Archives, 125)
Another author would weigh even more heavily on the situation.
"The through clearing up of farms, however, has produced very decided effects upon our streams. They now rise more rapidly attain to a great height and subsided, consequently, in much less time than heretofore. The Water now flows speedily off, instead of remaining spread over large tracts of land, to the great detriment and loss of our farmers." (History of Butler County Archives, 126)
When considering the social impact of deforestation we must think beyond the global issues that are normally discussed and look at impacts on the individual and local levels. There has long been "the notion that the destruction of local resources such as forests could be blamed on the poor themselves [?] was inherent in the very structure of traditional land management systems."(Soussan et. al. 16) The problems with this blaming lower socioeconomic classes and ways this hurt their culture are best explained by:
"The de-legitimisation of traditional forest management systems did not end local people's need for or use of forest products; it merely criminalized it. It also reduced the effectiveness of social control mechanisms, as the authority base within the community on which they rested was undermined. It led to the erosion of traditional knowledge of the best management techniques for local conditions, as these techniques were only effective within the context of traditional control systems and secure access to the forest through customary rights or secure tenure."(18)
In this way, responses to deforestation were flawed.
Also socially, the factors of increased population and food security issues are driving more forests to be cut down in the Four Mile Creek watershed and globally. With the growing populations of today's society, agriculture plays such a crucial role in addressing the issue of food security. Food security deals with the accessibility and distribution of food resources within a given area. Agriculture is the most common way this issue is addressed. When land is cleared or deforested for agricultural use, more "important" short-term issues such as food security can be addressed. Although often the problem of food security is greater in developing nations, it is still an important issue within the U.S.
The sites that we chose also played a factor in the results that we got. Although Harker's in general is more forested than Collins, our chosen sites were not typical of this trend. Our Collins site was more forested and less disturbed than our Harker's site. There were retaining walls just downstream from our site at Harker's. Also, our Harker's site was at the confluence of where it meets Four Mile Creek. It was directly beside the parking lot in the Bachelor Preserves. The Collins Run site was further upstream, approximately .25 miles from its confluence with Four Mile Creek. It was located on the hiking trail behind the art museum. Compared to other tributaries of Four Mile Creek that are farther upstream, the sites we chose were more forested.
We know that 87% of the total watershed and 85% of the watershed upstream from Acton Lake is used for agriculture (Renwick, 5). Consequently, if we would have chosen one site upstream of Acton Lake, the results might have supported our hypothesis that more deforested areas along the river would have more erosion and thus more sediment.
Based on the previous study of one of last years' research groups, we know that there is a great difference in sediment amounts between high and low water levels. A high water level occurs on days when there is more precipitation. All of our sampling days were at low water levels. With more variation between the water levels of the days, we feel that our results would have been drastically different and perhaps would have supported our hypothesis. We know from other studies that "Suspended sediment properties can also be expected to vary temporally in response to variations in sediment sources and the operation of erosion and sediment delivery processes. Such variations in properties are likely to be particularly marked in streams experiencing floods generated by both spring melt and summer rainstorms, since different sediment sources and erosion processes are likely to be associated with these events" (Petts and Callow, 86). The results that we got for Collins and Harker's were so similar that the added variation would have enhanced our data.
Looking globally, deforestation is one of the biggest environmental problems acting on rivers. The tropics have the greatest rates of deforestation. "For the recent 1990-95 period, net annual loss of natural tropical forest is estimated at 12.91 million ha (a rate of 0.74 percent)", (Wunder, 13) This has had drastic effects on the overall cover of tropical rain forests. According to Wunder, "The World Resource Institute estimates that 54% of all tropical forests remain compared to forest cover 8000 years ago" (15). Rivers in Southeastern Brazil and Burma have extensive problems attributed specifically to the deforestation along the rivers' edge. Some rivers in Southeastern Brazil have flooded and others have dried up due to the forests being cut and replaced by the agricultural practice known as swidden cultivation (Tucker and Richards, 65). The effects of soil erosion can be seen in Burma in the Irrawaddy and Sittang Rivers which were poorly developed with embankments, leading to other environmental problems (Tucker and Richards, 108).
Although the rates of deforestation are not as high in non-tropical regions, these rivers are also greatly affected by deforestation. The Yangtze River that we studied in class not only faces problems due to dams, but also is plagued with deforestation. According to the World Tibet Network News, "China's deforestation problem extends from the once heavily forested Qinghai-Tibet Plateau to the Yangtze River basin, which has lost 85% of its original forest cover" (WTNN, 1). They further report, "The hand that often wields an ax or chainsaw, denuding the highlands that feed Asia's great river systems and sending greater volumes of water and silt to compound catastrophes downstream" (WTNN, 1). Due to the high level of deforestation in the last fifty years, the Yangtze has experienced more frequent flooding. Accoding to the article, "Floods kill more than 2,000 people along China's Yangtze River a year" (WTNN, 1).
Many problems exist within the social realm of deforestation. For example, there are some critical flaws with the current cost-benefit-analysis of forest resources. The most important one for our purposes is that it is almost impossible to place a monetary value on a forest. How do you account for the added problems that removing these forests causes. For example, how much money should increased erosion in rivers be assigned? Often these factors are not included in the economic gains used to determine the outcomes of the forests. "The contribution that natural resources make to production and economic welfare is hardly acknowledged in national accounts. Capital formation is assigned a central role in economic growth theories, but natural resources are not treated like other tangible assets in the System of National Accounts" (Repetto, 14). When these factors are included, the economic gain from deforestation would be much less than it is claimed to be.
Global markets and trade also play a big factor in the free enterprise of deforestation. Deforestation for developing countries serves as a means for eliminating or decreasing national debt, such as the case in Brazil. Since private corporations have control of the marketing of forest resources, there is only value placed on the actual trees themselves and not the services the forest provide, which include reducing erosion, supplying medicine, and giving habitat to hundreds of species. According to an article on the causes of deforestation, "The problem is that many of the services provided by forests have either no market price or very imperfect prices and therefore do not enter into the decisions the main private sector actors" (Contreras-Hermosilla, 2). In other words, the natural resource (trees) located within their country is not as valuable as the money that they can receive for logging these areas.
Therefore, it is more economically important for these countries to utilize these resources in order to relieve the financial stress placed upon them. A serious problem is likely to arise for these countries that are rapidly depleting their resources. For example, in Costa Rica, natural resources are a critical economic asset (Repetto, 17). If these resources are exhausted for economic gain, what will their assets be in the future?
Although deforestation is a major environmental problem globally, the U.S. has protected and has regrown many forests around the country. According to the Society of American Foresters, "There are 747 million arcres of forestland in the United States, about 71% as much as there was in 1630" (SAF website, 1). Also, "Each year about 1.4 billion tree seedlings are planted - roughly four million a day - more than making up for those that are harvested." "If you include naturally regenerated trees the net growth exceeds the harvesting by 33% due to good forest management" (SAF website, 1). There is still more effort to protect more forested land around the country, and as stated above the Three Valley Conservation Trust is just one of the many organizations doing this. Watersheds are also being restored across the nation. As we read in our River's Reader, many of our rivers which have been channelized, deforested, and blocked by levees and dams, are now being left alone to bring back natural habitats that once existed. Increasing the native vegetation along rivers would also help the habitat of the river system as well as reducing erosion. According to the University of Western Cape website on Environmental Facts, "Plants slow down water as it flows over the land (runoff) and this allows much of the rain to soak into the ground" "Plants' roots hold the soil in position and prevent it from being washed away" (UWC website, 1). Restoration efforts would bring more sustainable river ecosystems and would also prevent large losses of soil.
Although the issue of food security may be temporarily subdued by deforestation for agricultural process, other alternatives should be explored. Possible solutions include increasing agricultural production on the lands that are currently in use rather than clearing more land. Besides this solution, another possibility is to change the processes dominant in developing countries regarding food distribution. It is thought that there currently exists enough food to feed everyone in the world; it just needs to be better distributed. Other alternatives in farming practices also include, "the use of contour ploughing and wind breaks, leaving fields fallow after harvesting, and allowing indigenous plants to grow along the river banks instead of ploughing and planting crops right up to the water's edge" (UWC website, 1-2). These techniques would allow less fertile soil to be eroded away and thus would probably sustain higher crop yields over time. This way the same fields could be planted for longer periods of time and less forests would have to be cleared for more farm land.
History of Butler County, Ohio. Western Biographical Publishing Co.: Cincinnati, OH 1882.
McGinnis, Ralph. The History of Oxford Ohio. Stuart Press: Oxford, OH, 1930.
Oxford Town on Tallawanda. Republican Publishing Company: Hamilton, OH, 1923.
Petts, G.E. amd C. Amoros (ed.) Fluvial Hydrosystems. Chapman and Hall: NY, 1996.
Petts, Geoffrey and Peter Calow. River Flows and Channel Forms. Blackwell Science: MA, 1996.
Renwick, William. Watershed Plan and Environmental Assessment for Four Mile Creek Watershed. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, and Forest Service. 1992.
Repetto, Robert. "Incorporating natural resources in National Income Accounts" Environment 34(7): 13-45. 1992.
Skinner, Jane K. Old Trails and Post Roads around Oxford. Oxford OH 1934.
"Forestry Facts." Society of American Foresters. 27 April 2003. http://www.safnet.org/aboutforestry/facts.cfm 2003.
Soussan, J. and B.K. Sharestha and L.P. Uprety. The Social Dynamics of Deforestation: A Case Study from Nepal. The Parthenon Publishing Group: NY, 1995.
Sparovek, Gerd et. al. "A Conceptual Framework for the Definition of the Optimal Width of Riparian Forests." Agriculture, Ecosystems, and Environment 90.2 (2002): 169-175.
Stewart, Arthur C. Oxford Town- The Village on the Hill. Oxford, OH 1920.
Three Valley Conservation Trust website: www.3vct.org
Tucker, Richard P. and J.F. Richards. (ed.) Ohio: Microcosm of Agricultural Clearing in the Midwest. Global Deforestation and the Nineteenth-Century World Economy. Duke Press Policy Studies: NC, 1983.
Earth Observatory. Ed. Urquhart, Gerald and Walter Chomentowski, David Skole, and Chris Barber. "Tropical Deforestation." NASA. 13 February 2003. http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Library/Deforestation/
World Tibet Network News website: http://www.tibet.ca/wtnarchive/1998/8/28_1.html
Wunder, Sven. The Economics of Deforestation. St. Martin's Press: NY, 2000.
"Soil Erosion." University of Western Cape, Botany Department. 27 April 2003. www.botany.uwc.ac.za/Envfacts/facts/erosion.htm 21 February 2001.
Appendix A
| stream | location | time | sediment | velocity |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Harkers | side | A | 0.015 | 0.08 |
| Harkers | side | B | 0.034 | 0.33 |
| Harkers | side | C | 0.004 | 0.32 |
| Harkers | side | D | 0.014 | 0.46 |
| Harkers | side | E | 0.003 | 0.08 |
| Harkers | side | A | 0.013 | 0.6 |
| Harkers | side | B | 0.007 | 0.76 |
| Harkers | side | C | 0.007 | 0.81 |
| Harkers | side | D | 0.075 | 0.68 |
| Harkers | side | E | 0.002 | 0.43 |
| Harkers | mid. Top | A | 0.01 | 0.42 |
| Harkers | mid. Top | B | 0.007 | 0.62 |
| Harkers | mid. Top | C | 0.001 | 0.7 |
| Harkers | mid. Top | D | 0.013 | 0.58 |
| Harkers | mid. Top | E | 0.003 | 0.33 |
| Harkers | mid. Bottom | A | 0.055 | 0.42 |
| Harkers | mid. Bottom | B | 0.01 | 0.62 |
| Harkers | mid. Bottom | C | 0.0011 | 0.7 |
| Harkers | mid. Bottom | D | 0.007 | 0.58 |
| Harkers | mid. Bottom | E | 0.002 | 0.33 |
| Harkers | averages | 0.014155 | 0.4925 | |
| Collins | side | A | -0.045 | 0.0005 |
| Collins | side | B | 0.008 | 0.02 |
| Collins | side | C | 0.001 | 0.02 |
| Collins | side | D | 0.013 | 0.01 |
| Collins | side | E | 0.002 | 0.01 |
| Collins | side | A | 0.011 | 0.5 |
| Collins | side | B | 0.006 | 0.49 |
| Collins | side | C | 0.001 | 0.67 |
| Collins | side | D | 0.013 | 0.5 |
| Collins | side | E | 0.006 | 0.29 |
| Collins | mid. Top | A | 0.05 | 0.12 |
| Collins | mid. Top | B | 0.01 | 0.27 |
| Collins | mid. Top | C | 0.002 | 0.52 |
| Collins | mid. Top | D | 0.006 | 0.28 |
| Collins | mid. Top | E | 0.005 | 0.21 |
| Collins | mid. Bottom | A | 0.064 | 0.12 |
| Collins | mid. Bottom | B | 0.006 | 0.27 |
| Collins | mid. Bottom | C | 0.038 | 0.52 |
| Collins | mid. Bottom | D | 0.01 | 0.28 |
| Collins | mid. Bottom | E | 0.002 | 0.21 |
| Collins | averages | 0.01045 | 0.26575 |
Appendix B
Historical Photos
Next Article
Previous Article
Return to the Topic Menu
IMPORTANT: For each Response, make sure the title of the response is different than previous titles shown above!
DOWNLOAD the Paper Posting HTML Formating HELP SHEET!
We also have a GUIDE for depositing articles, images, data, etc in your research folders.
WEATHER & EARTH SCIENCE RESOURCES |
|
OTHER ACADEMIC COURSES, STUDENT RESEARCH, OTHER STUFF
|
|
TEACHING TOOLS & OTHER STUFF
 |
Listen to a "Voice Navigation" Intro!
(Quicktime or