Part 2: A Summer Along Four Mile Creek: a young adult book

This topic submitted by Majida Al-Hussam, Melissa Hamann, Sarah Hayes, Luke King ( hayessl@muohio.edu ) on 4/29/03. [ Rivers Team: Majida Al-Hussam, Melissa Hamann, Sarah Hayes, Luke King-Section: Blaisdell/Wolfe]

Apparently our story is too large to post all at once. Here it is continued:

ÒYouÕre disrupting my workers! If you donÕt leave right now, IÕll call the police and have you arrested,Ó he snarled.
I raised my chin and was about to say, ÒI dare you,Ó but my grandmother interrupted.
ÒWe were just expressing our opinion about the loss of a special piece of land. However, if you want to call the police and arrest an old grandmother, her grandchildren, and their dog, I would be happy to call the press. IÕm sure they would be interested to know why you would do such a thing.Ó
Grandmothers for a Healthy Future was greatly loved by the local newspapers, so very few people in opposition to their views were rude to them. The newspapers would make them look like really bad people for yelling at environmentalist grandmothers. He got the point, and told us to leave Òplease.Ó
On the walk home I held my head high. IÕd spoken my mind and helped people think about what effects they have on the environment. My grandmotherÕs club worked on all sorts of issues concerning the environment including suburban sprawl. I decided that kids should get in on the act. My cousins and I talked about starting an organization called Grandchildren for a Healthy Future. It was going to be work, but I felt as though it was work that was needed.
At the end of the summer Gaia-too was gone. My cousins and I were heartbroken. We really loved that place. I took my idea for Grandchildren for a Healthy Future to New York, but I also kept connections with my friends near my grandmotherÕs home along Four Mile Creek. I still visit my grandmother every summer and learn from her and my cousins, play along the creek, and catch frogs, but it is not the same without Gaia-too. The creek even feels different. I know that I am different because of that summer along Four Mile Creek.

CHAPTER IV.
MADELINE
My name is Madeline. I am 12 years old, and I live on a farm in Farmland, South Dakota. We grow corn, soybeans, and wheat on our farm. We plant seeds in the spring to grow a crop. We use tractor, moldboard plows, chisel plows, and discs to get the soil ready for planting. We use tractors and planters to plant the seeds. When the crop is just starting to grow, we pay a company to come in and spray chemicals on it to kill the weeds and bugs that are bad for the crop. In the fall, we use combines to harvest the crop.
This summer I went to see my grandma in Oxford, Ohio. My cousins were there too. Grandma took us down to Four Mile Creek, which is nothing like the creek on our farm. My mom and dad tell me not to play ours. I saw a dead fish floating in it once. I told this to Grandma, and she said that it was sad that I couldnÕt play in the creek. She told us stories of when she and her brother and sister played in Four Mile Creek when she was a little girl. She said they would catch all kinds of fish, including smallmouth bass. I asked grandma why the fish in our creek at home had died. She said it was probably because of the pesticides that we use on our crops. Grandma told me that pesticides are poisons and they are dangerous when misused. They can kill fish, cause reproductive failure in birds, and make people sick. Pesticides can also contaminate ground water. There are two ways properly applied pesticides reach surface and underground watersÑthrough runoff and leaching. Once applied to cropland, a number of things may happen to a pesticide. It may be taken up by plants or ingested by animals, insects, worms, or microorganisms in the soil. It may move downward in the soil and either stick to particles or dissolve. The pesticide may vaporize and enter the atmosphere, or break down into other, less toxic compounds.
Grandma continued by saying that the cleanup of groundwater contaminated by pesticides often is impossible, and the contamination may last for many years. Most farm families rely on their own wells. Such private wells are rarely tested or treated, and in many instances, they are located close to fields on which pesticides have been applied. Groundwater supplying the wells may contain pesticides that have been leached from the fields by rain, melted snow, and irrigation water. However, most pesticides have not been found to leach, and certainly not all farm wells are contaminated. An understanding of what causes some pesticides but not others to leach is crucial in protecting groundwater quality. Leaching of pesticides depends in part on the amount applied per acre per year; where, when, and how it is applied; the solubility of the compound; how strongly it is held by the soil; and how quickly it breaks down in the root zone. After a pesticide is applied to a field, many things happen to it. Some may be lost to the atmosphere, carried away to surface waters by runoff, or broken down by the sunlight. Pesticides in soil may be taken up by plants, degraded into other chemical forms, or leached downward, possibly to groundwater. The remainder is retained in the soil and continues to be available for plant uptake, degradation, or leaching.
Grandma said we could all go wading if we wanted, and I was so excited that I was the first one in the water! When I jumped in, I noticed that a big cloud of mud formed around my feet and spread outward. I didnÕt like to see this because the creek was so clear. I worried that the whole creek would turn muddy now. I told that to Grandma and she said not to worry. It would stay muddy only for a little while. I told her that our creek at home was muddy all the time. Grandma said that was from the soil runoff from our fields. She said that she had been to our farm a few times when I was really little and before I was born, and she said she remembered seeing the creek run through the pasture and fields. She said, ÒItÕs not healthy for a stream to go through pasture and farmland. A stream needs to have a riparian zone around it.Ó
My one cousin Eric was planning on collecting water samples for testing the water of Four Mile Creek. I asked if I could go with him, and he said sure. He told me about sediment load. ÒSediment load is the amount of sediment that a creek transports in a certain amount of time. I recently read a study by a group of college students at Miami University. They tested three sites, one at Hueston Woods after the dam, on before the water treatment plant here in Oxford, and one after the water treatment plant. They found that the Hueston Woods a sediment load rate of 24,362.8 lbs/day. The site before the water treatment plant, the sediment load rate was 8,004.2 lbs/day. The sediment load rate after the water treatment plant was 18,045.7 lbs/day. Madeline, you live on a farm. Did you know that about 87% of the runoff that enters Four Mile Creek is agricultural runoff?Ó I said, ÒNo, I didnÕt know that. Does that mean that a lot of the pesticides and herbicides used by farmers get into the creek?Ó Eric said yes. ÒAnd there is soul erosion too, especially for the farmers who use conventional tilling methods.Ó
Eric then told me about no-till planting. No-till planting reduces soil erosion, conserves moisture, reduces the size of tractor power, reduces the need for tillage equipment, uses less labor, requires fewer days for planting crops, uses less liquid fuel, increases soil organic matter, reduces crusting, provides firmer soil conditions at harvest, and reduces soil temperatures. There are some downsides to no-till planting. No-till planting relies on herbicides for weed control, requires a no-till planter or planter modification, may cause delayed planting because of lower spring soil temperatures and greater moisture under heavy residue, may cause soil compaction in upper soil zone, and may cause different, greater, or more frequent insect, disease, and weed problems than those typical in conventional tillage crop production. However, most no-till experiments have been in areas that produce only one type of crop, usually corn, or areas with very simple rotations. By using vigorous cover crops and more creative rotations, controlling weeds under no-till planting may not be as difficult as it is when growing only one crop or simple rotations.
Eric also told me that one way to reduce but not eliminate the amount of pesticides and herbicides used on a farm is through integrated pest management (IPM). ÒIPM recognizes a field of crops as an ecosystem within which many natural forces affecting pests and weeds interact.Ó It takes into account natural predators of pests, planting patterns, varieties of pest-resistant crops, and careful use of pesticides and herbicides. With the IPM approach, farmers use pesticides and herbicides only when necessary rather than the first and primary attack. Farmers that use IPM methods enjoy saving money on chemical costs, reducing pesticide exposure, and reducing the threat of contaminating their familyÕs drinking water.
Then Eric mentioned a man named Fred Kirschenmann. Eric said, ÒGrandma said he was an organic farmer and now he is the Director of the Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture at Iowa State. Grandma went to his lecture at Miami University on April 16, 2003. His lecture was titled, ÒIs There a New Agrarianism in Our Future? Combining Agriculture, Conservation and Community. Grandma said Mr. Kirschenmann told a story of a man in China who was a rice farmer. The man was having a hard time making a living from his rice farm. In order to eliminate the need to buy expensive pesticides, he decided to try new methods of farming. The first thing he tried was putting ducks in his rice patties. The ducks would swim around in the rice patties and eat the insects that harmed the rice. The next thing the farmer tried was putting fish in his rice patties. The fish would swim in the water and eat the weeds that made it hard for the rice to grow. By using the ducks and fish in his rice patties, the farmer no longer needed to buy pesticides. Also, the droppings from both the ducks and the fish fertilized the rice, which meant that he no longer needed to by fertilizer. Since he no longer used pesticides, he was able to grow fruit trees around his rice patties. The rice also looked healthier with the new method of farming. The farmer also increased his profit because instead of selling just rice, he now sold rice, duck meat, duck eggs, fish meat, and fruit.Ó
I told Eric that the farmerÕs new method of farming sounded really neat, and I asked, ÒWhy donÕt the farmers around here do things like that?Ó Eric said that some farmers in the United States run organic farms. He said that Mr. Kirschenmann had a 3,500-acre farm in North Dakota that was organic. I asked Eric what exactly organic farming meant. He said that organic farming does not use synthetic chemical pesticides and fertilizers, which are the elements of conventional farming that are the most dangerous for the environment and humans. Pesticide use can lead to off-flavor in food and changes in the biological activity of plants. Pesticide runoff may be contributing to a decrease in ocean life. Environmental damage from fertilizers includes poisoning of streams and wells, and loss of the protective ozone layer in the upper atmosphere. Organic farming also consumes less energy than conventional farming.
If pesticides are used, they are usually organic compounds produced by living organisms. Organic fertilizers improve soil structure. Organic fertilizers include crop residue, various animal manures, and mulch. The most effective fertilizer is crop residue. Composting is a way to improve soil. It is the mixing of carbonaceous wastes such as leaves, hay, straw, sawdust, paper, or cornstalks with nitrogenous wastes such as grass clippings, vegetable wastes, garbage, manure, or soil. The mixture is then allowed to breakdown. The keys to successful organic farming are animal manures, composts, and crop rotation.
When Eric and I were done collecting water samples to test, we went back to GrandmaÕs house and had a nice dinner. Grandma, Lisette, and I went and sat outside and talked about the creek while Eric did the dishes. It was the last day we would be at GrandmaÕs house. I was sad about having to leave grandma, but I was excited about telling my mom and dad what I had learned at GrandmaÕs house.
When I got back home, I told my mom and dad about all the things I had learned about creeks and farming. They were interested in learning more about making our creek healthier and about organic farming.

CHAPTER V.
GRANDMA
Early one morning the chug-chug of a motor near the house woke me. I put on my robe to see what the noise was. Lisette, hair pillow-styled and eyes frantic, nearly plowed me over in the hallway.
ÒTheyÕre going to cut down the trees!Ó she yelled and ran outside.
I followed her to the backyard and saw a band of teenagers in waist-high wading boots with fishing nets. My little granddaughter stood at the edge of the stream in her nighty shrieking at them. She did not understand what they were doing. She thought that they might be hurting the environment like the people who cut down her favorite play spot.
ÒLisette,Ó I put my hand on her shoulder to calm her. ÒItÕs alright sweetie. I gave them permission. TheyÕre not hurting the trees or the stream. TheyÕre testing for biodiversity.Ó
ÒWhatÕs biodiversity?Ó She rested her brown eyes on the people doubtfully.
ÒItÕs just a fancy word for the amount of different species of animal, fish or insect in a certain area,Ó I replied.
They shut off the engine and got out of the stream to talk. Eric and Madeline emerged from the house, yawning and stretching.
ÒHi, IÕm Kevin and this is a fish shocker,Ó said the one with a machine on his back. They were students from the local college. They explained to us how the machine sent a mild shock through the water in order to immobilize the fish. The fish would be stunned but unhurt. They would then catch the fish in their nets and put them in a bucket of water in order to count and classify them later.
ÒMeasuring like this is important because biodiversity is a main indicator of stream health: ÔThe biota of every watershed on Earth is the product of millions of years of geological change and biological evolution; the very existence of living organisms represents the integration of conditions around them. Such a highly evolved, complex living web is the mark of integrity against which we can measure degradationÕ Ó He said. ÒWhen dams are built on a stream they trap silt and gravel behind them. The number of trout and other fish who only lay their eggs in gravel greatly decreases. If no one tested the biodiversity of the stream then no one would be aware of the problems of damming, and pollution.Ó
Eric, who is the seasoned fisherman of the family, was eager to join the students. He put on his rubber wading boots and jumped in. I warned Madeline and Lisette not to go in the water without boots because of the electrical current. They stood on the bank and pointed out the flecks of silver floating downstream after each shock.
Madeline quickly made friends with a beautiful Rainbow Darter. It had orange, green and blue fins and scales. Lisette preferred the tiny Stripped Shiners. They were long and silver colored. Two hours later the students had gathered 277 fish of 15 different species!
ÒThatÕs quite a haul from a tributary so dominated by urban runoff,Ó commented their professor. ÒAnd all from only a 125 meter stretch of creek.Ó Some, like the White Sucker came from pools. Others, like the Central Stonerollers, thrived in shallow, fast moving water called a Òriffle.Ó
ÒAnd the Blacknose-Dace and Smallmouth Bass are indicators of good stream health Ó Kevin added.
Lisette squealed with glee, ÒWe found 27 of those all together!Ó
ÒYour grandfather and I used to fish for bass and fry them right over there. That was when there was not so much non-point pollution like fertilizer and pesticides leaking into the stream. Organic farming is very noble, Madeline.Ó I said.
We lunched with the students and later wished them farewell. They promised to keep us updated on the condition of the streamÕs biodiversity for EricÕs science project.
The next evening Lisette came to me in tears. She had been thinking about how times were back when I was young, and before I was born. She had been reading about Native American removal from ancestral lands.
ÒGrandma, they actually used the river to ship the Twightwees off of their landÑlike cattle, like packages! They used something the Native Americans so cherished against them!Ó
ÒI am proud of you for reading so much about these issues, Lisette. Empathy is very important to understand others,Ó I said.
ÒHow could the stupid people steal from and hurt the Native Americans then later name universities and rivers after them? As if a name would be sufficient reparation.Ó She kicked a rock as we walked toward the babble of the creek.
ÒYou have every right to be angry, but do not let anger consume your heart. There are some who only exploit the earth and kill or move any person in their way. It is the truth, and you must know it, child. For years they have moved the Native Americans from their ancestral lands. First through broken treaties and discriminatory laws and then through eminent domain. When the state of North Dakota built the Garrison dam they forced the Sioux to give up 155,000 acres of land. The people used to fish for salmon and other fish in Missouri river, but since the reservoir has filled there are no more salmon. This happened in 1948. I was 30 when I felt the hearts of the entire tribe weep.Ó

I continued, ÒI, like you, do not understand why people do such things. Why they destroy the air and water that is the commons. A very wise man, Chief Seattle, once wrote, ÔHow can you buy or sell the sky, the warmth of the land? The idea is strange to us. If we do not own the freshness of the air and the sparkle of the water, how can we buy them? All things are connected. Whatever befalls the earth, befalls the sons of the earth. One thing we know. Our God is the same. This earth is precious to Him. Even the white man cannot be exempt from this common destiny.Õ
The sun fell low in the sky as Lisette and I sat on the bank. She was quiet and pathways of tears dried on her cheeks.
ÒThere are many people like you that fight to save the earth. TheyÕve banded together in environmentalist groups. They have voice and power.Ó
ÒLike Eric?Ó
ÒYes, he is already part of Trout Unlimited. They save watersheds in order to fish in them,Ó I replied.
ÒThey save the earth in order to fish? That seems backwards.Ó
ÒThere are different groups with other motivations to save the earth. The Organic Consumers Association is also a special interest group with farming practices in mind. Madeline will, no doubt, be part of this group when she is older. And then there are groups like Earth First! which are very radical. They do not bend their principles to reform to the system we live in. Instead they try to transform the system. They sit in trees in the rainforest to stop the loggers from cutting them down. I imagine that one day you will be a leader of such a group.Ó
ÒIÕve heard about them. They care about how the environment affects disadvantaged people. TheyÕre part of the environmental justice movement, Ó she brightened.
ÒThere are less radical groups like the Sierra Club that the majority of the complacent public can relate to. One of their motivations is to preserve the natural beauty of a place. They have much political power under their leader, Brower. They have even stopped dams, like the one the Bureau of Reclamation would have built at the juncture of the Green and Yampa rivers. Ó
ÒWow! I didnÕt know they could do so much!Ó the light in her eyes had come back. ÒI can do it too!Ó She was excited.
ÒYes, you see, like you and your cousins, different environmental groups have different interests. They are motivated by these interests, yet they have the same love of the earth and wish to preserve and repair it.Ó The crickets began their song, and the fireflies rose from the grass winking. Madeline had reappeared from her creek walk with Little Bro. Eric put down his scientific calculations to join us.
ÒI will tell you a story about a little beetle that made life better for all of the animals. It is an ancient myth, and the most widely distributed among the tribes. ItÕs called The Water Diver:

ÔIn the beginningÉwater covered everything. Though living creatures existed, their home was up there, above the rainbow, and it was crowded. ÒWe are all jammed together,Ó the animals said. ÒWe need more room.Ó Wondering what was under the water, they sent Water Beetle to look around.
Water Beetle skimmed over the surface but couldnÕt find any solid footing, so he dived down to the bottom and brought up a little dab of soft mud. Magically the mud spread out in the four directions and became this island we are living onÑthis earth. (Cherokee legend quoted in Erdoes and Ortiz 1984:105-106)Õ

ÒIt is now up to us to preserve and restore the magical land that the little beetle brought up from the depths of the water.Ó

LETTERS TO GRANDMA CHAPTER VI.

Dear Grandma,
I have seen so much degradation in Guilderland since I was last with you, Lisette, and Madeline over the summer. ItÕs rather depressing. On a positive note, IÕve found some new ways to help reverse the route that my suburban society is taking.
Mr. Wilcox, my environmental teacher, is allowing me to do some independent study work and I have challenged the use of pesticides on land owned by the Guilderland School District. This battle has taken me to discuss environmental stewardship to groundsÕ crews, school board members, and parents whose children play on the land. My battle is nearly won and I hope to be able to deliver some great news about this very soon.
As far as convincing Mom and Dad to stop the continuation of monoculture in our yard, that is a different story. TheyÕre not too keen about the idea of being the only people in the neighborhood with little yellow wildflowers known as ÒweedsÓ all over their front yard. Therefore, the scale of my environmental tactics at home has to start much smaller. I have begun a little wildflower prairie in the backyard to install a buffer zone as well as add some color to our Òsea of greenÓ- way too green if you ask me.
On your behalf, I wrote a letter to OhioÕs governor about the ÒState Operating Budget-H.B. 95Ó that puts a great deal of OhioÕs environmental legislation at risk for being greatly reduced or cut altogether. In my letter, I wrote of many of my concerns for OhioÕs air and water as well as how OhioÕs misuse of resources is manifesting in other regions of the country. It is mind boggling that coal is still being removed at an alarming rate. In Ohio, Ò22 million tons were removed at 113 surface and deep mines in 2000, alone.1Ó
When I am not busy with sports, school work, family, or friends, I have been eagerly investigating environmental websites. I think IÕve found something really cool for Lisette, Madeline, and me to do this summer. It is the Ohio Civilian Conservation Corps. We could better Four Mile Creek and other Ohio watersheds by planting trees, river clean-up, trail building, etc. May we PLEASE do this? I know how much you enjoy family bonding experiences and I really think all of us would greatly from some community service.
Hope you think it sounds fun. I miss you.
Love always,
Eric

Dear Grandmamma,
How are you?! I miss you so much. I feel like we have been apart forever, but it has only been two months. School is going well. I started working with my friends on Grandchildren for a Healthy Future. Our first campaign is going to be to educate other kids that are our age about the importance of keeping our parks clean. WeÕre incorporating a tree planting party into this campaign. IÕm so excited!
Grandma, IÕve been trying to read more on what can be done to help Four Mile Creek now that it has lost Gaia-too. I realize now that our human community will continue to lose nature if they continue to be uneducated about how their actions are affecting the natural environment. We can continue to plant new trees and add new vegetation to the riparian zone, like many environmentalist or river restorers would say to do; or we can be active and stop the problem where it starts! I was on the Sierra Club website last week and I saw a quote that led me to change the way that I think about improving the issue of suburban sprawl and the destruction of woodland and riparian zone. The quote said:
We tend to pin the blame for sprawl on developers, politicians, planners - anyone but ourselves. In fact, though development patterns are influenced by government policy and business, they are also the product of individual choices: where we choose to live, how far and how often we travel, how we get from point a to point b. We make choices every day that can support our call for healthy communities, thriving rural areas, and unspoiled wilderness.
This concept was exactly what I was thinking, but I never really knew how to say it. This site had a bunch of really interesting ideas. IÕm sure that you have read it before, but in case you havenÕt, you should probably know about Smart Growth. The idea of Smart Growth says that we should be very conscious of where we move to, making sure not to abandon our cities. Instead, we should work to improve the cities by promoting redevelopment, while making sure that people who earn less money than others are not being displaced. Smart Growth says that we should choose carefully where we live, and that we should try to stay close to areas where public transportation is easily accessible.
This concept sounds so easy, but I think that teaching these ideas to people are going to be very hard. How can I say to someone who has lived in city smog all their life to Òquit dreaming of greenery and clean air. Stay and fight the battle for our natural environment?Ó I can barely tell that to myself. I miss you grandma. I miss Four Mile Creek. I really miss Gaia-too. This one problem has so many large affects on the ÒAmerican way of lifeÓ as Joseph L. Bast says. He wrote an article called, ÒLibertarian Solutions: Managing suburban growth... destroying American's freedom.Ó What I donÕt understand is why this is the American way of life. Why is this culture so destructive? IÕm done feeling sad about the way of the world. There are so many other good things going on. Mom and Dad are doing well and Little Bro has a girlfriend. SheÕs the dog of our neighbors next door. Her owners are two twins, a boy and a girl. They moved here from Hawaii (I donÕt understand why anyone would do that). We talk about the beautiful flowers there. They are nice.
I have to go now and do homework. I love you grandma and I miss you. Write back soon.
Love Always,
Lisette

Dear Grandma,
I told my mom and dad about all the things I learned at your house. They are now making changes around the farm. We are growing a riparian zone around the creek. This will decrease agriculture runoff. My mom and dad are also beginning to change their farming practices. We will be growing a variety of crops such as hard red spring wheat, rye, buckwheat, millet, flax, canola, alfalfa, and sweet clover. We will use crop rotation. We may use compost, and my mom and dad are looking into getting some livestock. If we get livestock, we could use the manure for fertilizer. My mom and dad are also going to try no-till planting. We will start off using no-till planting in combination with the integrative pest management (IPM) method. If things go well, we will try to convert our farm into an organic farm, and hopefully be able to keep the no-till planting practice.
Grandma, I think that the farmers around Four Mile Creek should look into ways that they can improve their farms. I really would like to see Four Mile Creek improve. I also want the animals and the plants around the creek to be healthy too. Right before I left, you mentioned a group called the Three Valley Conservation Trust. I think they are an important key to the health to Four Mile Creek, and other creeks in the area. I hope the farmers understand that they can protect their farm ground for generations to come. Maybe the Three Valley Conversation Trust can join with organic farmers in the area to educate other farmers about ways to improve their land and farming operations.
Love,
Madeline
Glossary

Biodiversity: the environment and everything within it, including physical,
biological, and chemical aspects.

Biomass gasification- conversion of biomass to synthesis gas, which consists primarily of carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), and hydrogen (H2), via the high-temperature gasification process. Anaerobic bacteria are then used to convert the synthesis gas into ethanol.

Biota: all living organisms

Catchments: areas determined by drainage divide. They determine the boundary conditions in which rivers operate.

Co-firing: involves the replacement of a portion of coal with biomass at an existing boiler biomass- using organic matter, including crops, as an energy source.

Earth First!: a radical environmental group aimed at activism and informing the public through websites, lectures, a journal and publicity stunts. They are worldwide and their issues range from saving ancient forests to veganism. For more information go to http://www.earthfirst.org/

Ecological continua: ways in which all life interact with each other in continuous cycles, such as food chains.

Flood Plain: dissipate energy and storing storm water during flood events; support a diversity of wetland biota.

Fragmentation: the division of bodies of matter into parts by manmade or natural means; sometimes creating a hierarchy. Natural divisions are rivers, segments, and reaches. Manmade divisions would be dams.

Green energies- clean, renewable and efficient energy sources co-firing- a technique used to reduce the amount of coal burned by up to 15%.

Geomorphological: "Geo" = land; morph = change; hence, changes in land... for us, river changes over time due to nature and human influence.

Geomorphic units: different sections of a river w/ distinct habitats. (For example: pools, riffles, backswamps, waterfalls, cascades, bedrock steps.)

Habitat: by river classification- the smallest geomorphical unit; often geared towards the physical environment of an individual organism. (Varying habitats include: cutband, pointbar, pools, oxbow, riffle zone, etc.)

Hierarchical mod

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