We are river people and so were they (continued)

This topic submitted by Katie Zeitler, Ryan Lazowski, Jocie Ellis, Sarah Arnason ( ellisje@muohio.edu ) on 4/25/03. [ Rivers Team: Katie Zeitler, Ryan Lazowski, Jocie Ellis, Sarah Arnason-Section: Garrison/Green]

According to the Miami Tribe, although the Òancestors who remember life before the removal have been gone for some time now...they did instill in their children, and their childrenÕs children, a love and a respect for the lands of their youth. Even today our stories, our songs, and even our modern language revitalization program constantly remind us of the lands of our ancestors.Ó (http://www.miamination.com/page10.html). The land of their ancestors that the tribe refers to here includes the Four Mile Creek region of southwestern Ohio. We spoke to the aforementioned Daryl Baldwin, who gave us interesting tips on every aspect of our project. In regard to environmental issues, Baldwin said that todayÕs pollution of the land has been especially distressing for Native Americans, since they realize that the land is ultimate source of food and materials that all humans use, and this source is being recklessly spoiled. Most tribal environmental codes are stricter than state environmental codes, and this can cause a conflict between different jurisdictions (i.e. water is polluted upstream in lands regulated by state environmental codes, and then flows downstream into lands regulated by tribal environmental codes). Also, Native American lands in general are disproportionately affected by the problem of environmental degradation.

NATURAL SCIENCE TESTING COMPONENT
The second general purpose of our study was to compare the way todayÕs society interacts with rivers such as Four Mile Creek with the way Native Americans in the Southwest Ohio area did. The natural science testing component of this project was conducted toward accomplishing this goal. Since there are no formal scientific records of the Four Mile Creek riparian zone before white European settlement, the portions of the river that have been relatively free of human influence serve as a proxy for undisturbed native environments, and allow us to retrodict what the river and its surrounding environment might have been like before white European settlement. For the purpose of our study, those portions of Four Mile Creek near the creekÕs watershed serve as the rough proxy for undisturbed native environments in which the Native Americans lived, while those portions of Four Mile Creek farther downstream and nearer to the mouthof the creek serve as examples of portions of Four Mile Creek that have been substantially disturbed by human influence.
In our project we tested for sediment concentration and dissolved oxygen concentration at three locations along Four Mile Creek. The first location was in Hueston Woods State Park, upstream of the Acton Lake dam. The second location was behind the Western campus of Miami University, and the third location was in the city of Little Miami, near the mouth of the stream. Our hypotheses for this study were: sediment concentration would be lower in those portions of the river upstream of the dam that are relatively undisturbed by human encroachment, as compared to those portions of the river downstream of the dam that are disturbed by human agricultural and urban development; and dissolved oxygen concentration would be higher in those portions of the river upstream of the dam that are relatively undisturbed by human encroachment, as compared to those portions of the river downstream of the dam that are disturbed by human agricultural and urban development.
Several human factors influence both sediment concentration and dissolved oxygen concentration. Deforestation and cultivation of land, and overgrazing are the two major activities that increase sediment concentration, while the building of dams and reservoirs, bank stabilization of rivers, and soil conservation practices are the three major activities that decrease sediment concentration (Berner and Berner 183). Although the headwaters area of the Four Mile Creek watershed has been affected by agricultural development, many trees have been planted in Hueston Woods State Park, which decrease sediment concentration and thus offset the increases in sediment concentration due to agricultural development. The portion of Four Mile Creek behind the Western campus is adjacent to farmland that has been deforested, while the portion of Four Mile Creek in New Miami has been subjected to urban development and some deforestation. Both the portion behind the Western campus and the portion in New Miami are far enough downstream of the Acton Lake dam, such that the decrease in sediment concentration in these portions due to the dam is negligible. Thus, we expected sediment concentration to be lower in Hueston Woods as compared to sediment concentration behind Western and in New Miami.
Deforestation and cultivation of the land are two important human activities that decrease dissolved oxygen concentration in rivers. The deforestation and cultivation of the land allow more organic matter, nutrients, and agricultural fertilizers to enter a river, which in turn increases biological productivity and thus decreases dissolved oxygen concentration (Berner and Berner 258). As mentioned above, Hueston Woods has been forested and thus offsets the agricultural activity in that portion of the Four Mile Creek watershed. Behind Western, however, there is intense agricultural activity. In New Miami, nutrients and organic matter that enter the river from human sewage and industry increases biological growth and thus decreases dissolved oxygen concentration (Berner and Berner 258). Thus, we expected dissolved oxygen concentration to be higher in Hueston Woods as compared to sediment concentration behind Western and in New Miami.
Testing at each of the three sites was conducted three times on three different days (see attached data sheet). A water bottle with a 1L mark and coffee filters were used to conduct the sediment concentration tests. One liter of water was filtered through a coffee filter; the coffee filter was then later weighed, and this result was compared to the weight of a coffee filter that had not had water run through it. The difference in weights yielded sediment concentration in mg/L. A calibrated dissolved oxygen meter was used to directly measure dissolved oxygen concentration.
The averaged results of testing for both sediment concentration and dissolved oxygen concentration confirm our studyÕs hypothesis (see attached data sheet). Heading downstream from Hueston Woods to behind Western campus to New Miami, sediment concentration increases from 16.9 mg/L to 31.8 mg/L to 61.4 mg/L. While dissolved oxygen concentration is 13.0 mg/L in Hueston Woods, it is only 11.0 mg/L in New Miami and 10.8 mg/L behind Western campus. Considering Hueston Woods as a proxy for a pre-European settlement environment inhabited by Native Americans, these results show a difference between the way Native Americans interacted with rivers such as Four Mile Creek and the way todayÕs society interacts with Four Mile Creek. Given that increases in sediment concentration and decreases in dissolved oxygen concentration are indications of negative effects on stream water quality (Berner and Berner), Native Americans interacted with rivers such as Four Mile Creek in ways that better maintained stream water quality, as compared with the way todayÕs society interacts with rivers such as Four Mile Creek.
Through our data analysis and our cultural and social research, we have concluded that waterways, most importantly rivers, are still very important to Native Americans. Yet this region of the country seems to have been almost forgotten. Through the removal of the tribes and the influx of European settlers, the connections the Native Americans had forged with this land have almost disappeared. The society in this area today has taken a more exploitative approach to rivers and the land surrounding them. The cultural connection is much shallower, and through the use of technology todayÕs society manipulates the river instead of adapting their lives around it. The Native Americans were, and still are, river people, and we have much to learn from them. We too can be river people.
RAW DATA
Sampling Site Date Tested D.O. Test 1 D.O. Test 2 D.O. Test 3

Hueston Woods 3/23/03 14.2 mg/L 11.5 mg/L 12.0 mg/L
Hueston Woods 3/26/03 11.0 mg/L 12.0 mg/L 13.0 mg/L
Hueston Woods 3/30/03 16.0 mg/L 14.0 mg/L 13.0 mg/L

Sampling Site Date Tested Sediment Test 1 Sediment Test 2 Sediment Test 3

Hueston Woods 3/23/03 14 mg/L 23 mg/L 6 mg/L
Hueston Woods 3/26/03 17 mg/L 11 mg/L 22 mg/L
Hueston Woods 3/30/03 25 mg/L 15 mg/L 19 mg/L

Sampling Site Date Tested Temp. Test 1 Temp. Test 2 Temp. Test 3

Hueston Woods 3/23/03 10.7 *C 10.8 *C 10.7 *C
Hueston Woods 3/26/03 11.5 *C 13.1 *C 14.2 *C
Hueston Woods 3/30/03 9.2 *C 8.1 *C 8.0 *C

Sampling Site Date Tested D.O. Test 1 D.O. Test 2 D.O. Test 3

Behind Western 3/23/03 10.6 mg/L 10.4 mg/L 9.9 mg/L
Behind Western 3/24/03 10.5 mg/L 9.6 mg/L 10.2 mg/L
Behind Western 3/29/03 11.6 mg/L 11.5 mg/L 12.0 mg/L

Sampling Site Date Tested Sediment Test 1 Sediment Test 2 Sediment Test 3

Behind Western 3/23/03 32 mg/L 26 mg/L 33 mg/L
Behind Western 3/24/03 17 mg/L 36 mg/L 35 mg/L
Behind Western 3/29/03 24 mg/L 57 mg/L 26 mg/L

Sampling Site Date Tested Temp. Test 1 Temp. Test 2 Temp. Test 3

Behind Western 3/23/03 10.4 *C 10.0 *C 10.0 *C
Behind Western 3/24/03 12.4 *C 12.1 *C 12.1 *C
Behind Western 3/29/03 10.2 *C 10.0 *C 10.0 *C

Sampling Site Date Tested D.O. Test 1 D.O. Test 2 D.O. Test 3

New Miami 3/27/03 11.6 mg/L 11.1 mg/L 12.0 mg/L
New Miami 4/2/03 10.3 mg/L 10.2 mg/L 10.5 mg/L
New Miami 4/3/03 11.2 mg/L 10.8 mg/L 10.9 mg/L

Sampling Site Date Tested Sediment Test 1 Sediment Test 2 Sediment Test 3

New Miami 3/27/03 85 mg/L 72 mg/L 54 mg/L
New Miami 4/2/03 40 mg/L 53 mg/L 38 mg/L
New Miami 4/3/03 52 mg/L 44 mg/L 115 mg/L

Sampling Site Date Tested Temp. Test 1 Temp. Test 2 Temp. Test 3

New Miami 3/27/03 13.5* C 13.3 *C 13.3 *C
New Miami 4/2/03 15.7 *C 16.3 *C 16.5 *C
New Miami 4/3/03 18.6 *C 17.7 *C 17.9 *C

AVERAGED DATA
Sampling Site Average D.O. Average Sediment Average Temp.

Hueston Woods 13.0 mg/L 16.9 mg/L 10.7 *C
Behind Western 10.8 mg/L 31.8 mg/L 10.8 *C
New Miami 11.0 mg/L 61.4 mg/L 15.9 *C

REFERENCES & LITERATURE REVIEW

Aitken, Gary. Restoration of Trout Waters in the West: Blackfoot River of Montana. In Williams, J. E., Christopher A. Wood, and Michael P. Dombeck (Eds.), Watershed Restoration: Principles and Practices. (pp.402-424). Bethesda, MD: American Fisheries Society.

¥ This article describes variables influencing river management; these variables can be applied to an analysis of the way Four Mile Creek is managed today.

Allen, David J. (1995). River Chemistry. In Stream Ecology. (pp.23-43). New York: Chapman & Hall.

¥ This article describes factors that influence dissolved oxygen concentration.

Allen, Michael. (1994). Alligator Horses. In Western Rivermen, 1763-1861. (pp.6-26). Baton Rouge, LA: LSU Press.

¥ The images and uses of rivers described in this article can be compared with the way both todayÕs white population and todayÕs Native American population interact with Four Mile Creek.

American Indians Fighting to Save StateÕs Limited Untouched Mounds. [Online]. In The Ohio Beacon Journal. Available WWW: http://www.ohio.com/mld/beaconjournal/news/state/4874566.htm [2003, January 4]

¥ This article discusses recent efforts to save American Indian mounds in Columbus, Ohio from suburban development.

Barich, Bill. (1999). Crazy for Rivers. New York: The Lyons Press.

¥ This book contains images of several rivers that can be compared to images of Four Mile Creek.

Berry, Thomas. (1988). The Hudson River Valley: A Bioregional Story. In The Dream of the Earth. (pp.171-179). San Francisco, CA: Sierra Club Books.

¥ This excerpt discusses how people relate and to the Hudson River Valley, and suggests ways in which people living around Four Mile Creek relate to the stream.

Berner, Elizabeth Kay, and Robert A. Berner. (1987). The Global Water Cycle. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

¥ This book discusses factors influencing dissolved oxygen concentration in rivers, and also details the relationship between land use patterns and water quality.

Brose, David S., and NÕomi Greber. (1979). Hopewell Archaeology: The Chillicothe Conference. Kent, Ohio: The Kent State University Press.

¥ This collection of articles discusses Hopewell archaeological findings, including several of southwest Ohio. There is some discussion of the geomorphology of mound sites.

Couturier, Lisa. (1998). Reversing the Tides. In J. Murray (Ed.), The River Reader. (pp.141-147). New York: The Lyons Press.

¥ This excerpt discusses how some people have related to the Hudson river, and suggests ways in which people living around Four Mile Creek relate to the stream.

Cronon, William. (1996). The Trouble With Wilderness; or Getting Back to the Wrong Nature. In W. Cronon (Ed.), Uncommon Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature. (pp.69-90). New York: Norton & Co.

¥ The approaches to nature that are described in this article can be compared with the way both todayÕs white population and todayÕs Native American population interact with Four Mile Creek.

Dodge, J.R. (1860). Red Men of the Ohio Valley. Ruralist Publishing Company: Springfield, Ohio.

¥ An interesting, though incredibly biased, perspective on Native American life in Ohio; this book discusses details of the history of the Miami Tribe immediately before the chapter entitled ÒTheir Hatred of White Men,Ó referring to the Native American population as a whole.

Eckert, Allan W. (1996). That Dark and Bloody River. New York: Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing.

¥ This book describes how rivers were important in determining how Native Americans divided up territory among each other.

Godfrey, Chief Clarence. (1961). Miami Indian Stories. Ed. Martha Una McClung. Light and Life Press: Winona Lake, Indiana.

¥ This book tells of the customs and beliefs of members of the Miami Tribe in a narrative form; it is a useful link between aspects of Native American culture and the environmental context in which the cultures developed.

Gordon, Robert B. ÒThe Natural Vegetation of Ohio in Pioneer Days.Ó Bulletin of the Ohio Geographical Survey, Volume III, Number 2. Ohio State University: Columbus, Ohio. 1969.

¥ This work furthers our analysis and discussion of the watershed of Four Mile Creek, developing our understanding of the history of biota of the area.

Graf, William H. (2001). Damage Control: Restoring the Physical Integrity of AmericaÕs Rivers. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 91(1), 1-27.

¥ This article discusses the geomorphological significance of sediment load and particle size.

Greber, NÕomi B., and Katherine C. Ruhl. (1989). The Hopewell Site: A Contemporary Analysis Based on the Work of Charles C. Willoughby. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

¥ This book discusses cultural and archaeological artifacts discovered up to the date of publication at The Hopewell Site in Ohio.

Green, Bill, et al. (Eds.) (2003). WCP261 Poetry Reader. Oxford, OH.

¥ Some of the poems in this reader contain images of rivers similar to Four Mile Creek; these images help us explore the possible cultural meanings of Four Mile Creek.

Hagen, Joel B. (1992). Hubbard Brook: An Alternative to Big Ecology. In The Entangled Bank: The Origins of Ecosystem Ecology. (pp.181-188). New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

¥ The approach to ecological management described in this article can be compared with the way both todayÕs white population and todayÕs Native American population interact with Four Mile Creek.

Harper, David, and Mark Everard. (1998). Why Should the Habitat-Level Approach Underpin Holistic River Survey and Management? Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 8, 395-413.

¥ This article discusses sediment load and its impact on river habitats.

Havighurst, Walter. (1970). Towboat River. In River to the West: Three Centuries of the Ohio. (pp.250-260). Putnam Publishing Group.

¥ The uses of the Ohio River that are described in this article can be compared with the way people today use Four Mile Creek.

How to Measure Dissolved Oxygen. [Online]. In Washington Department of Ecology. Available WWW: http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/wq/plants/management/joysmanual/4oxygen.html [2003, February 25]

¥ This website discusses techniques for measuring dissolved oxygen.

Hughes, Robert. (1997). The Wilderness and the West. In American Visions. (pp. 137-175). New York: Alfred Knopf, Inc.

¥ This excerpt contains images of rivers that are comparable to Four Mile Creek.

Indian Burial and Sacred Grounds Watch. [Online]. In Indian Burial and Scared Grounds Watch. Available WWW: http://ibsgwatch.imagedjinn.com [2003].

¥ In addition to an introduction to the Indian Burial and Sacred Grounds Watch Organization, this web page also contains a list of over 50 links to articles concerning preservation efforts in 2002, several of which are in Ohio.

Karr, James R., and Ellen W. Chu. (2000). Sustaining Living Rivers. Hydrobiologia, 422/423, 1-14.

¥ The IBI approach to river management described in this article can be compared with the way both todayÕs white population and todayÕs Native American population interact with Four Mile Creek.

Kaufman, Burton I. (1972). Organization for Foreign Trade Expansion in the Mississippi Valley, 1900-1920. Business History Review, vol. XLVI, no.4, 444-465.

¥ The organizational approaches to economically exploiting the Mississippi River that are described in this article can be compared to the ways different groups of people have economically exploited Four Mile Creek.

McFarland, R.W. ÒAncient Earthwork Near Oxford, Ohio.Ó Ohio Archaeological and Historical Publications, Volume I, June 1877 Ð March 1888. Published for the Society by Fred J. Heer: Columbus, Ohio.

¥ An article that is relevant to our project, as it discusses a Native American burial mound that was located in Oxford, next to Four Mile Creek.

McGurrin, Joseph, and Harv Forsgren. (1997). What Works, What DoesnÕt, and Why? In Williams, J. E., Christopher A. Wood, and Michael P. Dombeck (Eds.), Watershed Restoration: Principles and Practices. (pp.459-471). Bethesda, MD: American Fisheries Society.

¥ This article outlines one approach to modern conservation and preservation efforts.

McKee, Seth. (2000). Conservation Easements to Protect Historic Viewsheds: A Case Study of the Olana Viewshed. In Julie Ann Gustanski, and Roderick H. Squires (Eds.), Protecting the Land: Conservation Easements Past, Present, and Future. (pp.102-116). Washington, D.C.: Island Press.

¥ The easement approach to protecting rivers and the lands surrounding them can be compared with the way both todayÕs white population and todayÕs Native American population interact with Four Mile Creek.

McPhee, John. (1971). Encounters with the Archdruid. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

¥ Some images of rivers presented in this book can be compared to images of Four Mile Creek. Also, the approaches Brower and Dominy take toward interacting with rivers can be compared with the way both todayÕs white population and todayÕs Native American population interact with Four Mile Creek.

McShine, Kynaston. (1976). On Divers Themes from Nature. In The Natural Paradise Painting in America 1800-1950. (pp.60-74). New York: The Museum of Modern Art.

¥ This excerpt contains images of rivers that are comparable to Four Mile Creek.

ÒMiami Indian Culture.Ó http://www.nmnm.essortment.com/miamiindiancul_unkf.html
¥ This website provided us with information about the cultural, social and environmental pratices of the Miami Tribe.

Morell, Virginia. (2001). Blue Nile: EthiopiaÕs River of Magic and Mystery. Washington D.C.: National Geographic Adventure Press

¥ This book contains some images of the Blue Nile that are similar to images of Four Mile Creek.

Murray, John. (1998). Introduction. In J. Murray (Ed.), The River Reader. (pp.1-11). New York: The Lyons Press.

¥ This excerpt discusses how people have related to rivers around the world, and suggests ways in which people living around Four Mile Creek relate to the stream.

ÒMyaamia: Miami Nation.Ó http://www.miamination.com
¥ This website, the official site of the Miami Nation, gave us indispensable information regarding the current situation and lifestyle of the Miami people.

Northrop, F.S.C. (1947). The Functions and Future of Poetry. In The Logic of the Sciences and the Humanities. (pp.169-190). New York: World Publishing.

¥ This article describes Ôconcepts by intuition,Õ which is a humanities approach to determine the cultural significance of poetry and images. This approach can be applied to images of Four Mile Creek.

OhioÕs American Natives - Part 1 - Mound Builders. [Online]. In USGenWeb Archives. Available WWW: http://www.rootsweb.com/~usgenweb/oh/newspapers/natives/part1.txt [2000, April 19]

¥ This article gives an overview of the Native American mound builders of southwestern Ohio. In particular, it discusses the mounds of Butler County and also explains the strategic importance of living along rivers for both the Native Americans and the white settlers.

Ormerod, S.J. (1999). Three Challenges for the Science of River Conservation. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 9, 551-558.

¥ The approaches to river management described in this article can be compared with the way both todayÕs white population and todayÕs Native American population interact with Four Mile Creek.

Pitlick, John. (1997). A Regional Perspective of the Hydrology of the 1993 Mississippi River Basin Floods. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 87(1), 135-151).

¥ The way the Mississippi River Basin had been managed before the 1993 floods can be compared with todayÕs management of Four Mile Creek, especially with regards to flood control.

Platt, Carolyn V. (1998). Creatures of Change: An Album of OhioÕs Animals. The Kent State University Press: Kent, Ohio.

¥ This book gives an overview of the biota of Ohio, while also discussing the historical background of various animal life forms in the state.

Quaife, M.M. ÒThree Centuries of the Maumee Valley.Ó Ohio History. Volume 50.
¥ This article was useful in gaining background knowledge of the Ohio valley and its tributaries, particularly in relation to the Miami Tribe.

Qing, Dai. (1998). The River Dragon Has Come!: The Three Gorges Dam and the Fate of ChinaÕs Yangtze River and its People. Armonk, New York: M.E. Sharpe.

¥ This book contains some images of the Yangtze River that are similar to images of Four Mile Creek.

Renwick, William H., et. al. (1995). Landscape Change with Agricultural Intensification in a Rural Watershed, Southwestern Ohio, U.S.A. Landscape Ecology, vol.10, no.3, 161-176.

¥ This article discusses land use patterns in the Four Mile Creek watershed.

Romain, William F. (2000). Mysteries of the Hopewell: Astronomers, Geometers, and Magicians of the Eastern Woodlands. Akron, Ohio: The University of Akron Press.

¥ This book discusses Hopewell cultural and archaeological artifacts in general, with several examples concerning southwestern Ohio. Of especial interest is a section on why the biotic and geomorphic aspects of rivers were important influences on the culture and the building of mounds.

Sale, Kirkpatrick. (1993). The Green Revolution: The American Environmental Movement, 1962-1992. New York: Hill and Wang.

¥ The activities of the environmental movements described in this book can be compared with the way both todayÕs white population and todayÕs Native American population interact with Four Mile Creek.

Sanders, Randall E. (Ed.) (2000). A Guide to Ohio Streams. Columbus, OH: Streams Committee, Ohio Chapter of the American Fisheries Society.

¥ This book discusses the watershed of the Great Miami River, of which Four Mile Creek is a tributary, dissolved oxygen, sediment load, and biodiversity.

Schiemer, F. (2000). Fish as Indicators for the Assessment of the Ecological Integrity of Large Rivers. Hydrobiologia, 422/423, 271-278.

¥ The use of fish biodiversity as an indication of a streamÕs ecological integrity can be applied to Four Mile Creek.

Seeman, Mark F. (1979). The Hopewell Interaction Sphere: The Evidence for Interregional Trade and Structural Complexity. Indian Historical Society Prehistory Research Series, vol.V, no.2, 236-438.

¥ This article uses archaeological and historical evidence to explain how and why the Hopewell interacted with other Native American tribes and the white settlers. The Hopewell of Southwest Ohio is discussed, and rivers are a component of the explanation for Hopewell behavior.

Shiva, Vandana. (2002). Water Wars: Privatization, Pollution, and Profit. Cambridge, MA: South End Press.

¥ The radical environmentalist perspective toward rivers that is presented in this book can be compared with the way both todayÕs white population and todayÕs Native American population interact with Four Mile Creek.

Singer, Peter. (2000). Environmental Values. In Writings on an Ethical Life. (pp.86-102). New York: Ecco Press.

¥ The approaches to nature that are described in this article can be compared with the way both todayÕs white population and todayÕs Native American population interact with Four Mile Creek.

Small, Stephen J. (2000). An Obscure Tax Code Provision Takes Private Land Protection into the 21st Century. In Julie Ann Gustanski, and Roderick H. Squires (Eds.), Protecting the Land: Conservation Easements Past, Present, and Future. (pp.55-66). Washington, D.C.: Island Press.

Stream Sediment Storage and Load. [Online]. In The National Park Service NatureNet. Available WWW: http://www.aqd.nps.gov/grd/geology/monitoring/stream_sediment.pdf [2002, October 28]

¥ This website discusses techniques for measuring sediment load.

Taylor, Dorceta E. (2000). The Rise of the Environmental Justice Paradigm. American Behavioral Scientist, vol.43, no.4, 508-579.

¥ The approaches of the various environmental paradigms described in this article can be compared with the way both todayÕs white population and todayÕs Native American population interact with Four Mile Creek.

The Law and American Indian Grave Protection. [Online]. In Indian Burial and Sacred Grounds Watch. Available WWW: http://www.ibsgwatch.imagedjinn.com/learn/laws.htm [2003]

¥ This article discusses contemporary efforts at preserving Native American cultural and archaeological artifacts through the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA). The article includes an account of a particular court case in the state of Washington.

Thomson, Taylor, Fryirs, and Brierley. (2001). A Geomorphological Framework for River Characterization and Habitat Assessment. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 11, 373-389.

¥ This article discusses the geomorphological significance of sediment load.

Twain, Mark. (1883). Life on the Mississippi. New York: Penguin Books.

¥ Some images of the Mississippi presented in this book are similar to images of Four Mile Creek.

Webb, William S., and Raymond S. Baby. (1957). The Adena People. Columbus, OH: The Ohio State University Press.

¥ A relatively old analysis of archaeological findings at Adena sites in Ohio.

Welcome to the Ohio Historical Society. [Online]. In The Ohio Historical Society. Available WWW: http://www.ohiohistory.org/ [2003, February 12]

¥ This is the website of the Ohio Historical Society, which contains some information on Native American cultural and archaeological artifacts.
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