We are river people, and so were they- PART ONE

This topic submitted by Ryan Lazowski, Jocie Ellis, Sarah Arnason, Katie Zeitler ( zeitleki@muohio.edu ) on 4/28/03. [ Rivers Team: Ryan Lazowski, Jocie Ellis, Sarah Arnason, Katie Zeitler-Section: Garrison/Green]

Throughout time, rivers have shaped not only the lands where they flow, but also, the civilizations and cultures inhabiting the land around them. The presence of rivers and their tributaries provides a variety of benefits for living creatures and biota within the environment. Healthy rivers harbor unique forms of life, create fertile land, and remain a crucial resource for those living near the riverbank. Most significantly, rivers are dynamic. The characteristics of rivers and their tributaries change, both by natural processes and by interactions with humans; thus, riversÕ relationships with the biota of the surrounding areas also evolve over time. Native Americans provide a historical example of a group of cultures that have been influenced by and have related with rivers over time. In our project, we investigated the ways in which Native Americans have interacted with rivers, particularly in the area of southwestern Ohio. In our treatment of the relationship between Native Americans and rivers, we examined the inherent qualities of rivers and streams that might have appealed to Native American cultures. In addition, we felt it would be beneficial to understand the contemporary condition of the Four Mile Creek area, as well as the current lifestyle of the Miami tribe, an American Indian group we focused on throughout our studies. One general purpose of our study was to research how Native Americans interacted with rivers such as Four Mile Creek in social, cultural and natural ways. The second general purpose of our study was to examine the way modern society interacts with the Four Mile Creek, as well as to investigate the current activities and placements of the Native American groups, specifically the Miami Tribe.
To address the first purpose of the study, we researched archaeological, anthropological and historical records to assess what natural (i.e. biological, ecological and geomorphological) aspects of rivers such as Four Mile Creek might have had cultural significance for Native Americans. Our hypothesis was that the natural aspects of the river, such as biodiversity, oxygen concentration and sediment concentration, had cultural significance for Native Americans.
We also researched anthropological and historical records to assess what geomorphological and topographical aspects of rivers such as Four Mile Creek might have been of importance in the formation of Native American societies. In this2C we paid regard to competition among Native American societies for land and resources and competition between Native American societies and the white settlers for land and resources (i.e., river embankments for defense of community, rivers as territorial boundaries, etc.) Our hypothesis was that geomorphological and topographical aspects of rivers had strategic importance in the formation of Native American societies and the interaction among various Native American societies, as well as their interaction with the white settlers.
To address the second purpose of the study, we did both natural science testing and anthropological testing. The natural science testing involved testing for dissolved oxygen and sediment concentration. The testing of dissolved oxygen concentration, sediment concentration and the analysis of local lands will all be spread across different portions of Four Mile Creek, namely those portions that have been almost complete unaffected by human development, those portions that are affected especially by agricultural development, and those portions that are affected by urban/suburban development. Comparing dissolved oxygen concentrations and sediment concentration along portions of the river that have been relatively free of human influence versus those portions that have been subjected to human influence, are ways we evaluated the way we interact today with the river versus the way the Native Americans (i.e. minimal human impact) did. Our hypotheses for these tests were: dissolved oxygen concentration would be lower in those portions of the river affected by agricultural and urban/suburban development as compared to those portions mostly unaffected by human encroachment; sediment concentration would be greater in those portions of the river affected by agricultural and urban/suburban development as compared to those portions of the river mostly unaffected by human encroachment. Since there were no formal scientific records of river environments before white European settlement, the portions of the river that have been relatively free of human influence served as a proxy for undisturbed native environments, and allowed us to retrodict what the river and its surrounding environment might have been like before white European settlement.
The anthropological testing involved discussions with people and groups that interact with the river, such as Joe Leonard, Daryl Baldwin, Adolph Greenberg, Bill Renwick, and others, to assess what cultural and social significance people in the past and today find in rivers such as Four Mile Creek. We also considered contemporary cultural media which pertained to Four Mile Creek; these artifacts helped us to assess the cultural values of the creek. Furthermore, we researched anthropological and historical records covering the beginning of white European settlement up to the present, in order to set a context for how the cultural and social significance of rivers developed into the significance they have for people today. Our hypothesis was that the cultural and social significance of rivers for people today would differ from the cultural and social significance ascribed to rivers by the Native Americans.
This research connected with aspects of our Rivers course and had relevance to larger questions. Scientific measures of stream health, analysis of environmental conservation and preservation efforts, and discovering and rediscovering our cultural and historical connections to the natural landscape are all topics that were discussed and analyzed in the Rivers course. By comparing the way we interact with rivers such as Four Mile Creek today with the way the Native Americans did, we were able to infer suggestions and lessons for ways we as a society can interact with natural resources such as rivers in a more sustainable fashion.
Water has played an important role in the lives of Native Americans for centuries. Its spiritual and cultural significance is certainly just as important as its daily uses. Many tribes see water as the essence of all life, and rivers are often perceived as the veins of the world. One Mascouten Indian is quoted as saying, ÒWhen the Great Spirit created mankind he dipped his fingers in water and put it in their mouths. Therefore, water is life. It has perpetual motion; it is the blood in our bodies. It is the life in our hearts. Our hearts are only wind and water movingÓ (Romain, 17). Water has a constant presence in Native American mythology. Many bodies of water, oftentimes rivers and lakes, are considered sacred areas. Confluences of rivers are especially consecrated areas, since it is there that the power of two rivers join as one. Due to these beliefs, many tribes are now attempting to protect these areas with environmental legislation.
Four Mile Creek, the Miami, and the Ohio Valley have all had a long relationship with Native American tribes. Four Mile Creek was in fact originally named Tallawanda, meaning Òwinding watersÓ or Òrunning water,Ó after a princess of the Miami Tribe. This relationship extends back long before the Miami even existed though. The first people to live in the area of Four Mile Creek were the Adena and Hopewell, who are also referred to as ÒThe Mound Builders.Ó The Adena are believed to have been in the region first, existing from around 1000 B.C. to 100 A.D. They were highly skilled in crafts, and also accomplished agriculturists. In fact they are considered to be the first farmers of Ohio. The use of water for growing their crops, mainly beans, squash, pumpkins, and sunflowers, would have been crucial. The first evidence of the Hopewell dates to about 100 B.C., and the evidence dies out around 500 A.D. They did not seem to rely much on agriculture, however, but instead did a great deal of fishing and hunting. It is obvious, though, that both tribes needed water for daily survival. Archeologists have also found many artifacts in the areas of the Adena and the Hopewell, which are made of materials not native to this area. This points to the fact that these tribes participated in trade, mainly with groups in regions of the coastal United States. Waterways would have been extremely important in expediting this practice.
The name ÒMound BuildersÓ comes from the hundreds of grand burial mounds that were constructed by the Hopewell and Adena all over Ohio, West Virginia, Kentucky, Indiana, and somewhat in Pennsylvania. There are four burial mounds located in the Four Mile Creek watershed, one of which sits on the Hueston WoodsÕ campgrounds. Including these four, there are twelve in total located in the Oxford area. The Hueston Woods mound is one of the few which have not been excavated, so very little is known about it. It is considered to be Adena, though. This mound is much smaller than most, probably indicating that those who built it were not in the area for a great deal of time. Nevertheless, burial mounds often indicated a commitment to a specific region, whether the tribe was physically present or not. The average Adena or Hopewell mound is located less than a quarter of a mile from water. Many believe that this had spiritual and practical significance. Practically, the mound builders would want to keep their mound far enough away from a river so as to avoid flooding, yet the importance of being near water is obvious.
There are no written works left from these cultures, but some scholars believe that the Adena and Hopewell may have had similar mythology and beliefs to the Native Americans that came much later. One myth which has caught the attention of researchers is the Earth Diver Myth. In this myth a creature is sent to the bottom of the primal waters and returns with a piece of mud which becomes the earth and everything on it. This myth is incredibly widespread, and each version is just a little different. History of the Earth Diver Myth has been found in North America, Europe, and Asia. Though there is no proof as to whether the Adena and Hopewell knew of this myth, there has been some speculation that they may have due to their burial practices. The construction of a burial mound is begun by the digging of a shallow pit. In this would go the first corpses. A base of muddy soil would be placed around this pit, and then layers of various types of soil would continue to be built upward into the mound shape. A great deal of the dirt and mud was obviously brought in from different areas, including water banks and river bottoms. New layers of bodies would be added as members of the community died. Archeologists have found that many of these bodies have a small layer of mud over them, even if the majority of the layer is made of a different type of soil. Some scholars have suggested that this very well could be related to the Earth Diver Myth. It is possible that this layer of mud represented that first bit of mud that was originally brought up by the Earth Diver.
We have so far examined the cultural connections between Native Americans and rivers of the southwestern Ohio; specifically, the ways in which rivers and streams figured into the cultural systems of the prehistoric Adena and Hopewell tribes. In addition to the position that rivers held in prehistoric tribesÕ cultural practices, such as in their placement and development of burial mounds, it is hypothesized by certain anthropologists that rivers also played a role in the social systems of these ancient tribes. For example, it has been suggested that Òthe Nashport mound- located in the lower Licking River valley in a strategic position between the Ridge and the Muskingham River, a tributary of the Ohio- may have figured in the Adena trade systemÓ (Brose and Greber 13). In this way, both mound-building and the trade patterns were constructed, for the Adena people, in relative to riverine systems of the areas they inhabited. It has also been said that trade occurred Òin the Ohio valley among the Archaic antecedents of the Adena in Michigan copper and marine shellsÓ (Brose and Greber 12). Thus, the Adena people were implicated in patterns of trade involving tribes from the Great Lakes region and also, Atlantic coast regions, as demonstrated by the types of non-indigenous material found at Adena archeological sites. Given the available archeological evidence, it is likely that the Adena used rivers and their tributaries as a means of facilitating social interactions, namely trade, between themselves and other prehistoric tribes.
Although both the Adena and the Hopewell tribes had disappeared from the southwestern Ohio region by sometime around the year 500 A.D., the 16th and 17th centuries marked the first recorded appearances of more modern tribes in the region. It is important to note that these observances were recorded by European explorers and traders, and therefore, the exact dates on which tribes such as the Miami first settled in this region is not known. The political and historical context of interactions between different Native American tribes, and between Native Americans and Europeans, is rather complex; therefore, we chose to focus in this paper on the Miami Tribe. By showing certain ways in which the Miami interacted with other tribes and Europeans, and how rivers were implicated in these varied relationships, it may be possible to then better connect the general idea of Native American tribesÕ interactions with rivers to this region, and in turn, to the Four Mile Creek where we conducted our scientific tests of the creekÕs water.
In examining the Miami TribeÕs presence in southwestern Ohio, it is important to note that the first recorded locations of the Miami, in 1658, were actually in Wisconsin, on the banks of Lake Michigan. The Miami Tribe eventually migrated south, and their locations were recorded on the Miami River, from about 1720 to 1763, and also on the Scioto River, during this time period. Although the Miami was said to have done Òmost of their traveling by land rather than by canoe,Ó (Kubiak 111) rivers and streams were still an important part of the Miami TribeÕs geographical mindset, as they frequently settled by rivers, and the tributaries and headwaters of rivers. The MiamiÕs tendency to settle by rivers was connected to their lifestyle, particularly in terms of their means of subsistence. The majority of the Miami diet was agriculture-based: while the Miami were renowned for their unique variety of white corn, they also grew small fruits and vegetables. Because the Miami tribe had established important locations along trade routes, they had a higher level of control over the area, in relation to other tribes. The MiamiÕs villages were built in woodlands, near freshwater lakes and rivers; also, in these locations, there was an abundance of game, fish, nuts, berries, and roots. The Miami also participated in sports and games such as swimming, which lent a recreational aspect to their interactions with rivers and streams. And finally, it can be presumed that the Miami used rivers and streams for more prosaic functions, such as for drinking water, bathing, and cooking. While the rivers and streams themselves were used by the Miami in these ways, the floodplain surrounding the rivers was equally important, given that the Miami TribeÕs diet was primarily based on agricultural products.
Although, as has already been noted, the Miami did not rely heavily on rivers as a mode of transportation, many other tribes, as well as French and English forces, did. In fact, it was said that in the early colonial era, Òwhen wilderness was king and practically all travel was by water, the Maumee and Wabash rivers constituted one of the chief highways of travel between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River systemÓ (Quaife 3). In this, it is presupposed that the Miami was not one of the tribes which used these rivers as a ÒhighwayÓ on which to travel. Even before the presence of Europeans, the Maumee valley was Òthe highway of uncounted war parties from the Great Lakes journeying southward to wage against the southern tribes the long warfare which made of Kentucky a vacant wilderness and won for it a name what means Ôthat dark and bloody groundÕÓ (Quaife 3).
The Miami, however, were not usually included in these traveling war parties. Although they and their sub-tribes were the most powerful in the area, the Miami Òwere essentially nonbelligerent,Ó while, in contrast, their New York counterparts Òlusted for battle, conquest, and new territoryÓ (Eckert 306). The coalition of New York tribes, which included the well-known Iroquois Tribe, frequently attacked and raided Miami villages for some time, in attempts to expand their territory. In these efforts, the New York tribes used Òthe Ohio River as their launching site and highwayÓ (Eckert 306). Thus, the Ohio River was implicated in the political struggles between different Native American tribes.
Another way in which rivers figured into relationships between different Native American tribes can be seen in the example of the Miami and the Shawnee tribes. When the Shawnee Tribe arrived in the country the Miami then inhabited, the Miami tribe chose to cooperate with the Shawnee rather than fight them, given the ShawneeÕs reputation as a fearsome, war-like tribe. The Miami, after having made peace with the Shawnee, Òoffered them Ohio country land to live on temporarily in the largely uninhabited valleys of such major Ohio River tributaries as the Scioto and Muskingham rivers. This was to be in exchange for the Shawnees using their fierce skills against the New York tribes if and when they attempted further invasion of the Ohio country or navigated the Ohio river en route to strike the southern tribesÓ (Eckert 307). In the exchange made between the Miami and the Shawnee, the high value placed on land located near rivers is demonstrated, as is the extent to which certain Native American tribes used the Ohio and its tributaries for transportation purposes and to secure political positions among tribes.
Although the Miami, like most Native American tribes, by no means openly welcomed Europeans onto their land, the Miami and many other Native American tribes did participate in trade with the French and English; this trade was, in that region, facilitated through the use of rivers and their tributaries for transportation of people and goods. The Native AmericansÕ interaction with Europeans was in part spurred by the realization that they had Òbeen projected out of the Stone Age and into an era of modern weaponry that included steel knives, tomahawks, firearms, fabric, paints, blankets, liquor and other desirable commodities,Ó and consequently, Òthey had quickly become dependent upon the trade goods brought to them by the FrenchÓ (Eckert 312). In this way, Native American tribes such as the Miami were inadvertently forced to interact with Europeans. Though the French initially had the upper hand in this Native American market, the British quickly scrambled to become involved as well, and thus, the pace of white encroachment on Native American lands quickened.
An example of British involvement can be seen in their purchase, for 600, from the Iroquois of Òa vast territory of undefined extentÉa territory that extended to the Ohio River and downstream from there, including the Ohio River drainage.Ó This purchase, which Òtook in lands inhabited by the Shawnees, Delawares, Kickapoos, Miamis, and other tribes,Ó (Eckert 320) was based on the presupposition that the Iroquois were disposed to sell the land; which was not perceived to be the case by tribes such as the Miami. This deal between the Iroquois League and the British shows the value placed by the British on lands including the Ohio and its tributaries. Even though the monetary amount assigned to the lands was relatively small, the fact that the British felt compelled to actually purchase the land could indicate their desire to take control as soon as possible of that area, for strategic economic and political reasons.
At the same time that the British were purchasing the land inhabited by the Miami, which included tributaries of the Ohio (such as the Four Mile Creek, around which this research project is based), the French were still active in this region. In addition to the already existing trade patterns, a French commander by the name of Celeron was leading an expedition, on which he undertook to bury Òengraved lead plates at the mouths of major tributaries of the OhioÓ (Eckert 328). It could be said that the fact that Celeron chose to bury these plates, stating FranceÕs claim to the lands, at the tributaries of rivers indicated that he and his forces understood something of the importance of lands surrounding rivers- an idea which they might well have learned from their observance of Native American behaviors regarding rivers and their tributaries.
The French continued their interaction with Native American tribes by attacking the village of principal Miami Tribe Chief Unemakemi; in this attack, UnemakemiÕs heart was cut out while he was still living; then, a portion of his heart was eaten; and finally, Unemakemi was beheaded. Following UnemakemiÕs death, his second-in-command, Michikiniqua (Little Turtle), Òbecame principal chief of the Miamis, and in a very short time he had established a new capital village of the tribe, called Kekionga, at the head of the Maumee River, where it is formed by the confluence of the St. MaryÕs and St. JosephÕs RiversÓ (Eckert 338). The conflicts between Europeans and Native Americans had thus escalated into violence; the description of this incident also shows how Little Turtle came into his position as Chief of the Miami Tribe. Finally, the incidents shows that the Miami were still settling by the headwaters of rivers.
An example of Native American tribes settling closer to rivers can be seen in the case of the Shawnees at Sinioto. This particular settlement of the Shawnees was located at Sinioto, on the Scioto River, which is a tributary of the Ohio. It was recorded that Òon May 23, 1753, excessive rains caused heavy flooding on the Scioto, and the Shawnees had to scramble to safety on higher ground and watch stoically as the water rose nine feet high in their expansive village and the powerful current swept it all away except for three or four cabinsÓ (Eckert 339). The tribe was, however, able to reconstruct a new Sinioto, Òstill close to the mouth of the Scioto, but this time to the east of the river on the much higher terrace overlooking the OhioÓ (Eckert 339). In the description of the Shawnees on the Scioto, the relationship between Native Americans and their available waterways is shown as being centered around the river: the Shawnees settled by the river, and when it affected them in a negative way, they merely adjusted their location in relation to the river, rather than attempting to control the river so it would no longer flood regularly.
Ultimately, in a somewhat ironic twist, rivers were a part of the Miami TribeÕs removal from the lands which they had for centuries inhabited, to reservation lands in the Midwest. According to the website of the Miami Nation, Òthe actual physical, and forcible, removal of the Miami Tribe commenced on October 6, 1846 at Peru, Indiana. It was there that the canal boats waited on the Mississinewa River while soldiers gathered and loaded our [the Miami] ancestors aboard by gunpoint. The removal journey followed the Mississinewa south to Cincinnati where, on October 14, 1846, our People were taken from the canal boats and loaded onto the steamboat ÔColorado.Õ This vessel carried them down the Ohio River to its confluence with MississippiÓ (http://www.miamination.com).
In analyzing the relationship between Native Americans and the river over time, it is important to examine the current state of both the Four Mile Creek and the Miami Tribe. While the river has historically played a large role in the social aspects and cultural practices of groups such as the Miami, present day conditions have made the relationship much more distant. Though Native American tribes no longer live along Four Mile Creek, the people who interact with the water today still attach cultural and social values to the creek, and have formed a tight relationship with many aspects of the river system. And, though the Miami Tribe has been relocated to Miami, Oklahoma, and has embraced a lifestyle that no longer depends on the river system, the tribe still celebrates their history and their relationship with rivers such as Four Mile Creek.
The Four Mile Creek area is now a magnet for recreational, educational, health, fitness, artistic, and natural interests and activities. Hueston Woods State Park, which includes parts of Four Mile Creek, provides an example of the current relationship between humans and the watershed we have researched for our project. The park was developed in 1945, after a conservationist bought the land that had been in the family of Matthew Hueston for generations. Hueston bought the land in what is now Butler and Preble counties around 1797, when Native Americans were forced to move from the land, thus ending their relationship with Four Mile Creek. In 1956, the 1,200 earth fill dam across Four Mile Creek was created, and in 1957, Acton Lake was completed, and Hueston Woods was designated as a state park, so that the general public could enjoy the watershed and woods. In modern days, Hueston Woods offers a wide range of opportunities centered around Acton Lake, the creek, and its surrounding riparian zones. The area, in southwestern Ohio, has 3596 acres of land, and 625 acres of water, and encourages activities such as fishing, hunting, hiking, mountain biking, picnicking, paintballing, swimming, and boating during the summer. In the winter, Houston Woods offers ice skating, sledding, ice fishing, ice boating and cross-country skiing. Also, cottages, lodges, cabins, restaurants, swimming pools, golf courses, and campsites have been developed since the 1960Õs around the area for people who want to take advantage of the water and land. (http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/parks/parks/huestonw.htm). Hueston Woods also has a nature center to bolster the public interest and appreciation in the natural animals and plant species within the watershed. The nature center has live animal displays, and sponsors nature hikes, bird and flower walks, movies and fossil hunts. For example, the nature center is sponsoring a spring wildflower hike on April 26th. On April 27th, interested persons will gather at the nature center and search for spring songbirds. And also, on April 27th, naturalists will present a lecture on reptiles and amphibians native to the area, with live examples of the species they will discuss. Such activities develop the environmental ethics of nearby residents, so that the public has begun to improve the health and ecological integrity of Four Mile Creek.
A current example of organizations that have been founded to aid in the protection of the Four Mile Creek watershed is the Three Valley Conservation Trust. The TVCT is a local organization that strives to set the standard for land conservation and river preservation, as it attempts to Òpreserve the natural environment and cultural resources in the Four Mile, Seven Mile, and Indian Creek and Twin Creek valleys in Butler and Preble countiesÓ within the state of Ohio. The TVCT utilizes conservation easements to defend local land, which to the trust is priceless, important, necessary and in danger of encroachment. In protecting local land, the trust often protect riparian zones (corridors of land that border streams), and thus, often protect and have interest in the health of local streams, such as Four Mile Creek. The conservation need of the TVCT is based their appreciation of local land and the Four Mile Creek system, which they say is Òblessed with beautiful waterways, magnificent woodlands, scenic bluffs, diverse wildlife and distinctive farm heritage.Ó The trust also declares the fearsome worry that natureÕs Òtreasures are threatened by increased housing ad commercial developmentÓ where highways and urban sprawl will be Òirrevocably altering the...character of the Three Valley area.Ó To the TVCT, saving the Four Mile Creek has to do with salvaging natural, cultural, social and economic heritage. Of equal importance, however, is the conservation of land because of its environmental sanctity, and because the health of local streams are intrinsically connected to the health of the land, and to the success of the groupÕs goals.
The ideals of organizations like the Three Valley Conservation Trust are more in line with the ethics systems of American Indian groups such as the Miami Tribe. In our research, we discovered that the Miami TribeÕs connection with a watershed such as the Four Mile Creek has become rather remote. This was to be expected, since the Miami Nation is now centered in Oklahoma, and deals with economic, educational, legislative and environmental issues on a regular basis. While the modern Miami society mainly focuses on balancing cultural preservation with economic development, an integral value within the tribe is the protection of their cultural, social and natural histories. In economic development, the Miami Tribe currently centers efforts on design work, farming, and business enterprises. In this, screen printing and embroidery designs and organizations such as the Miami Tribe Business Development Authority and the Miami Tribe Business Enterprises aim to further the economic prosperity of the Miami Nation.
Efforts are being made toward cultural preservation, and the tribe has founded a Mission of the Cultural Preservation Office of the Miami Nation to Òpreserve the culture, language and traditions of the myaamiaki so that we may honor our ancestors, respect our living people and places, and assure the continued identity of our Nation for generations to come,Ó (http://www.miamination.com/page9.html). In this task, the tribe attempts to revive interest in language reclamation, as well as begin cultural education programs. In language reclamation, the Miami Tribe works with Miami University as partners in the Myaamia Project directed by tribal member Daryl Baldwin. Through this project, language curriculum and basic language tools are created, bringing the life of the language back to the Miami Tribe.
A large part of cultural education programs in the Miami Tribe include instilling an appreciation for the environment in all tribal members. The tribe has established the Envira-Tech Environmental Testing Lab and is part of the Global Native Environmental Services

Next Article
Previous Article
Return to the Topic Menu