Draft 3: "We Are River People, And So Were They"

This topic submitted by Sarah Arnason, Jocelyn Ellis, Ryan Lazowski, Katie Zeitler ( LAZOWSRD@muohio.edu ) on 3/7/03. [ Rivers Team: Sarah Arnason, Jocelyn Ellis, Ryan Lazowski, Katie Zeitler-Section: Garrison/Green]

Rivers Project Proposal
Sarah Arnason, Jocelyn Ellis, Ryan Lazowski, Katie Zeitler

ÒWe Are River People, and So Were TheyÓ

1. Introduction

Throughout time, rivers have shaped not only the lands where they flow,
but also, the civilizations and cultures inhabiting the land around them.
The presence of rivers and their tributaries provides a variety of
benefits for living creatures in the environment. Rivers, however, are
dynamic. Characteristics of rivers and their tributaries change, both by
natural processes and by interactions with humans; thus, riversÕs
relationships with the biota of the surrounding areas also evolve over
time. Native Americans provide a historical example of a group of
cultures that have been influenced by and have related with rivers. We
are interested in the ways in which Native Americans have interacted with
rivers, particularly in the area of southwestern Ohio. In our treatment
of the relationships between Native Americans and rivers, we plan to
examine the inherent qualities of rivers and streams that might have
appealed to Native American cultures. One issue we plan to address is
the cultural significance that biological, chemical, and physical
characteristics of rivers had for Native Americans. Additionally, we
will look at how the social interactions between different Native
American tribes, and later, between tribes and European settlers, were
connected through rivers. And finally, we will consider current
conservation efforts in comparison to the way the Native Americans interacted with and used rivers.

One general purpose of our study is to research how the Native Americans interacted with rivers such as Four Mile Creek. The second general purpose of our study is to compare the way todayÕs society interacts with rivers such as Four Mile Creek with the way Native Americans in the Southwest Ohio area did.

To address the first purpose of the study, we will research archaeological, anthropological and historical records to assess what natural (i.e. biological, ecological and geomorphological) aspects of rivers such as Four Mile Creek might have had cultural significance for Native Americans. Our hypothesis is that natural aspects of the river, such as biodiversity, oxygen concentraton and sediment load, had cultural significance for Native Americans. One possible example of cultural significance is a tribe connecting the life of its community with the life of biodiversity on rivers, in the context of a common mythology of the origins and nature of life. Another example of possible cultural significance is a tribe using a river in birth and death rites (i.e., baptisms and raft-borne pyres).

We will also research anthropological and historical records to assess what geomorphological and topographical aspects of rivers such as Four Mile Creek might have been of importance in the formation of Native American societies, especially with regard to competition among Native American societies for land and resources and competition between Native American societies and the white settlers for land and resources (i.e., river embankments for defense of community, rivers as territorial boundaries, etc.). Our hypothesis is that geomorphological and topographical aspects of rivers had strategic importance in the formation of Native American societies and the interaction among various Native American societies and between Native American societies and the white settlers.

To address the second purpose of the study, we will do both natural science testing and anthropological testing. The natural science testing will involve testing for river biodiversity above and below the Acton lake dam, and testing of dissolved oxygen concentration, testing of sediment load concentration, and analysis of records of forest cover along the riparian zone of Four Mile Creek. The testing of dissolved oxygen concentration, sediment load concentration and the analysis of records of forest cover will all be spread across different portions of Four Mile Creek, namely those portions that have been almost completely unaffected by human development, those portions that are affected especially by agricultural development (esp. fertilizer/nutrient runoff, soil erosion, tree cutting), and those portions that are affected especially by urban/suburban development (esp. human waste and litter, soil erosion, tree cutting). Comparing biodiversity upstream of the dam versus downstream of the dam and comparing dissolved oxygen concentration, sediment load concentration and forest cover along portions of the river that have been relatively free of human influence versus those portions that have been subjected to human influence, are ways to compare the way we today interact with the river versus the way the Native Americans (i.e. minimal human impact) did. Our hypotheses for these tests are: biodiversity will be greater upstream of the dam compared to downstream of the dam; dissolved oxygen concentration will be lower in those portions of the river affected by agricultural and urban/suburban development as compared to those portions mostly unaffected by human encroachment; sediment load concentration will be greater in those portions of the river affected by agricultural and urban/suburban development as compared to those portions of the river mostly unaffected by human encroachment; forest cover will be lower in those portions of the river affected by agricultural and urban/suburban development as compared to those portions of the river mostly unaffected by human encroachment. Since there are no formal scientific records of river environments before white European settlement, the portions of the river that have been relatively free of human influence will serve as a proxy for undisturbed native environments, and allow us to retrodict what the river and its surrounding environment might have been like before white European settlement.

The anthropological testing will involve interviews with people and groups that interact with the river (i.e. Three Valley Conservation Trust) and to assess what cultural and social significance people today find in rivers such as Four Mile Creek. These responses will be compared with cultural and social significance the Native Americans found in rivers such as Four Mile Creek, as shown in archaeological, anthropological and historical records. We will also consider contemporary cultural artifacts, such as poetry and photography, which pertain to Four Mile Creek; these artifacts will help us assess the cultural meaning(s) of the creek. Furthermore, we will research anthropological and historical records covering the beginning of white European settlement up to the present, in order to set a context for how the cultural and social significance of rivers developed into the significance they have for people today. Our hypothesis is that the cultural and social significance of rivers for people today will differ from the cultural and social significance ascribed to rivers by the Native Americans.

This research connects with aspects of our Rivers course and has relevance to larger questions. Scientific measures of stream health, analysis of environmental conservation and preservation efforts, and discovering and rediscovering our cultural and historical connections to the natural landscape are all topics that have so far come up in the Rivers course. By comparing the way we today interact with rivers such as Four Mile Creek with the way the Native Americans did, we can infer suggestions and lessons for ways we as a society can interact with natural resources such as rivers in a more sustainable fashion.

2. Literature Review

Over the years, a number of scholars have completed works relevant to our
study, including but not limited to the sources listed below. As our
research continues, we may reevaluate the relevancy of these sources,
especially in combination with other sources we may find.

1. Godfrey, Chief Clarence. Miami Indian Stories. Ed. Martha Una McClung.
Light and Life Press: Winona Lake, Indiana. 1961.
This book tells of the customs and beliefs of members of the Miami Tribe
in a narrative form; it could be a useful link between aspects of Native
American culture (specifically, the Miami Tribe) and the environmental
context in which the cultures developed.

2. Fossils of Ohio. Ed. Feldmann, Rodney M. Division of Geographical
Survey: Columbus, Ohio. 1996.
A comprehensive collection of pictures of common and representative
fossils of Ohio, combined with detailed, thorough analysis and
explanation of the fossils.

3. McFarland, R.W. ÒAncient Earthwork Near Oxford, Ohio.Ó Ohio
Archaeological and Historical Publications, Volume I, June 1877 Ð March
1888. Published for the Society by Fred J. Heer: Columbus, Ohio.
An article which seems as if it could be very relevant to our project, as
it discusses a Native American burial mound that was located in Oxford,
next to Four Mile Creek.

4. Dodge, J.R. Red Men of the Ohio Valley. Ruralist Publishing Company:
Springfield, Ohio. 1860.
An interesting, though incredibly biased, perspective on Native American
life in Ohio; this book discusses details of the history of the Miami
Tribe immediately before the chapter entitled ÒTheir Hatred of White
Men,Ó referring to the Native American population as a whole.

5. Platt, Carolyn V. Creatures of Change: An Album of OhioÕs Animals.
The Kent State University Press: Kent, Ohio. 1998.
This book gives an overview of the biota of Ohio, while also discussing
the historical background of various animal life forms in the state.

6. Fry, John O. The Introduced Plants of Butler County. May 1930.
As stated on the inside cover, this document is Òa thesis submitted to
the faculty of Miami University in partial fulfillment for the degree of
Master of Arts.Ó This work could be of value in helping to determine the
changes in biota of this area over time.

7. Gordon, Robert B. ÒThe Natural Vegetation of Ohio in Pioneer Days.Ó
Bulletin of the Ohio Geographical Survey, Volume III, Number 2. Ohio
State University: Columbus, Ohio. 1969.
This work could further our analysis and discussion of the watershed of
Four Mile Creek, developing our understanding of the history of biota of
the area.

8. Peterson, A. Townsend. A History, Summary, and Analysis, of the
Oxford, Ohio, Christmas Bird Count. The Oxford Audubon Society: Oxford,
Ohio. 1982.
Another work of local interest, this text could help our group gain a
more comprehensive understanding of the biota of Four Mile Creek and the
surrounding area.

9. The Law and American Indian Grave Protection. [Online]. In Indian
Burial and Sacred Grounds Watch. Available WWW:
http://www.ibsgwatch.imagedjinn.com/learn/laws.htm [2003]
This article discusses contemporary efforts at preserving Native American
cultural and archaeological artifacts through the Native American Graves
Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA). The article includes an account
of a particular court case in the state of Washington.

10. American Indians Fighting to Save StateÕs Limited Untouched Mounds.
[Online]. In The Ohio Beacon Journal. Available WWW:
http://www.ohio.com/mld/beaconjournal/news/state/4874566.htm [2003,
January 4]
This article discusses recent efforts to save American Indian mounds in
Columbus, Ohio from suburban development.

11. OhioÕs American Natives - Part 1 - Mound Builders. [Online]. In
USGenWeb Archives. Available WWW:
http://www.rootsweb.com/~usgenweb/oh/newspapers/natives/part1.txt [2000,
April 19]
This article gives an overview of the Native American mound builders of
southwestern Ohio. In particular, it discusses the mounds of Butler
county and also explains the strategic importance of living along rivers
for both the Native Americans and the white settlers.

12. Welcome to the Ohio Historical Society. [Online]. In The Ohio
Historical Society. Available WWW: http://www.ohiohistory.org/ [2003,
February 12]
This is the website of the Ohio Historical Society, which contains some
information on Native American cultural and archaeological artifacts.

13. Indian Burial and Sacred Grounds Watch. [Online]. In Indian Burial
and Scared Grounds Watch. Available WWW: http://ibsgwatch.imagedjinn.com
[2003].
In addition to an introduction to the Indian Burial and Sacred Grounds
Watch Organization, this web page also contains a list of over 50 links to
articles concerning preservation efforts in 2002, several of which are in
Ohio.

14. Romain, William F. (2000). Mysteries of the Hopewell: Astronomers,
Geometers, and Magicians of the Eastern Woodlands. Akron, Ohio: The
University of Akron Press.
This book discusses Hopewell cultural and archaeological artifacts in
general, with several examples concerning southwestern Ohio. Of especial
interest is a section on why the biotic and geomorphic aspects of rivers
were important influences on the culture and the building of mounds.

15. Greber, NÕomi B., and Katherine C. Ruhl. (1989). The Hopewell Site: A
Contemporary Analysis Based on the Work of Charles C. Willoughby. Boulder,
CO: Westview Press.
This book discusses cultural and archaeological artifacts discovered up to
the date of publication at The Hopewell Site in Ohio.

16. Webb, William S., and Raymond S. Baby. (1957). The Adena People.
Columbus, OH: The Ohio State University Press.
A relatively old analysis of archaeological findings at Adena sites in Ohio.

17. Woodward, Susan L., and Jerry N. McDonald. (2001). Indian Mounds of
the Middle Ohio Valley. Blacksburg, VI: The McDonald & Woodward Publishing
Company.
This book discusses mounds in the lower half of Ohio and the Native
American cultures that built them. Three mounds along the Great Miami
River are covered.

18. Seeman, Mark F. (1979). The Hopewell Interaction Sphere: The Evidence
for Interregional Trade and Structural Complexity. Indian Historical
Society Prehistory Research Series, vol.V, no.2, 236-438.
This article uses archaeological and historical evidence to explain how
and why the Hopewell interacted with other Native American tribes and the
white settlers. The Hopewell of Southwest Ohio are discussed, and rivers
are a component of the explanation for Hopewell behavior.

19. Brose, David S., and NÕomi Greber. (1979). Hopewell Archaeology: The
Chillicothe Conference. Kent, Ohio: The Kent State University Press.
This collection of articles discusses Hopewell archaeological findings,
including several of southwest Ohio. There is some discussion of the
geomorphology of mound sites.

20. Harper, David, and Mark Everard. (1998). Why Should the Habitat-Level Approach Underpin Holistic River Survey and Management? Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 8, 395-413.
This article discusses sediment load and its impact on river habitats.

21. Berner, Elizabeth Kay, and Robert A. Berner. (1987). The Global Water Cycle. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
This book discusses factors influencing dissolved oxygen concentration in rivers, and also details the relationship between land use patterns and water quality.

22. Williams, Jack E., Christopher A. Wood, and Michael P. Dombeck. (1997). Understanding Watershed-Scale Restoration. In Williams, J. E., Christopher A. Wood, and Michael P. Dombeck (Eds.), Watershed Restoration: Principles and Practices. (pp.1-13). Bethesda, MD: American Fisheries Society.
This article discusses soil erosion and sediment load and their effects on the health of rivers.

23. McGurrin, Joseph, and Harv Forsgren. (1997). What Works, What DoesnÕt, and Why? In Williams, J. E., Christopher A. Wood, and Michael P. Dombeck (Eds.), Watershed Restoration: Principles and Practices. (pp.459-471). Bethesda, MD: American Fisheries Society.
This article outlines one approach to modern conservation and preservation efforts.

24. Sanders, Randall E. (Ed.) (2000). A Guide to Ohio Streams. Columbus, OH: Streams Committee, Ohio Chapter of the American Fisheries Society.
This book discusses the watershed of the Great Miami River, of which Four Mile Creek is a tributary, dissolved oxygen, sediment load, and biodiversity.

25. Green, Bill, et al. (Eds.) (2003). WCP261 Poetry Reader. Oxford, OH.
Some of the poems in this reader contain images of rivers similar to Four Mile Creek; these images will help us explore the possible cultural meanings of Four Mile Creek.

3. Interdisciplinary Approach

As stated in the introduction, our project will combine cultural, social,
and scientific perspectives in our analysis of Four Mile Creek, in the
ways mentioned in the introduction.

4. Research Design

Since our project will draw from the disciplines of archeology and
anthropology, we will look at evidence specific to Native American
tribes, such as burial mounds and cultural artifacts. A possibility for
furthering our understanding of the Miami Tribe will be contacting Joe
Leonard, the son of the Chief of the Miami Tribe, and Daryl Baldwin, a
relative of the renowned Chief Little Turtle. We may attempt to
interview them and utilize their unique perspectives on the life and
history of the Miami Tribe. We will combine both qualitative and
quantitative research techniques in our analysis of Four Mile Creek. To
gauge the biological diversity of the stream, we will do a count of the
fish, using the Òshocker,Ó if such a research method can be properly
executed by our team. We also plan to qualitatively analyze the various
forms of vegetation in the riparian zone of the creek, by collecting
samples of the vegetation. Additionally, we plan to observe the area
around the creek for evidence of animal life. Through our analysis of
the biota in the riparian zone, we will assess the overall biological
integrity of the creek, using the index of biological integrity as a
basis for comparison and evaluation. With additionally research, we will
be able to better judge which elements of biota are most relevant to the
determination of the overall integrity of Four Mile Creek. Also, we
wanted to keep the bedrock and treeline of the area in mind, though we
have not yet determined ways of empirically testing these aspects.

Testing for biodiversity will focus on fish in Four Mile Creek upstream of the dam and downstream of the dam. We will count key indicator species of fish both upstream and downstream of the dam in order to assess the health of the stream in each area. Testing will probably be done once in each area on the same day.

Testing for dissolved oxygen values will take place in three portions of the stream: one portion that is relatively unaffected by human encroachment; one portion that is affected especially by agricultural development; and one portion that is affected especially by urban/suburban development. In each of the three portions, testing will be done three times in order to obtain more accurate values. If possible, testing at each of three sites will all be done consecutively in one day in order to minimize differences due to temperature.

Testing for sediment load concentration will take place in three portions of the stream: one portion that is relatively unaffected by human encroachment; one portion that is affected especially be agricultural development; and one portion that is affected especially by urban/suburban development. In each of the three portions, testing will be done three times in order to obtain more accurate values. If possible, testing at each of the three sites will all be done consecutively in one day in order to minimize temporal differences.

The interviews with people and groups that interact with Four Mile Creek will include general questions applicable to whatever person or group we interview, questions particular to the person or group we are interviewing, and time for questions directed toward us, the interviewers, by the person or group being interviewed.

5. Materials and Methods

Materials
á ÒThe ShockerÓ: to stun fish upstream and downstream of the dam in order to count them.
á Fish Net: to collect the fish.
á Dissolved Oxygen Meter: to determine dissolved oxygen.
á Plastic Carton: to collect and sift sediment.

Team Work
á Most if not all field research will be done as a group.
á So far, one group member is especially interested in biodiversity and stream health, one group member is especially interested in archaeological evidence relating to Native Americans, one group member is especially interested in anthropological and historical evidence relating to Native Americans, and one group member is especially interested in contemporary anthropological evidence.
á The group will meet weekly to share research findings and determine where future research efforts should be directed.

Timeline
á Field research on the river will begin once the weather warms, probably at the beginning of March.
á Interviewing will begin as soon as the persons and groups we are interested in interviewing are available.
á Library research has already begun.

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